Sociological Research, Culture, Society & Social Interaction

Sociology

The study of people and their behavior as if affected by social structures (society) and culture.

The sociological perspective

-The examination of how being in a society affects human behavior, identity, and life chances.

-How social structures affect behavior

Society

Groups of people whose behavior is patterned

Social Structure

Society

Stratification

Inequalities found in a society

Institutions

Established, structured systems of norms and practices that fulfill fundamental societal functions. Ex. Schools & government

Status

Position in society.

Role

Behaviors expected based on status

Macro Level Analysis

How being a part of larger social structures affects ones ability to do well or not do well.

Micro Level Analysis

Day to day lives & social interactions

C. Wright Mills- Sociological imagination

Connection between an individual’s identity & the social context (family & friends & institutions)

Psychological Perspective

Looks at individuals’ internal processes

C. Wright Mills

-Push for sociology to take a critical look at society

-Studies of power and inequality: “Cake layers” higher up are more privileged & seen as greater

The Enlightenment

Social theorists changed the established social order & the ideas that justified it like “divine right to kings”

The Industrial Revolution

Changed how goods are produced & shift in the organization of society. Changes in family structure & stratification

August Comte

- Coined the term “sociology”

-Application of the scientific method to society

-Purpose: Guide society toward peace, order & reform

-Positivism: Science of the social world that would reveal itself through laws & principles

Herbert Spencer

Survival of the fittest: Limited resource, individuals and societies compete for the resources, fittest will survive

Society as an organism: Head is government, body systems: Social structures —> work together to maintain status quo & integrated

Theory of Social Evolution: Societies will shift from simple to more complex (civilized, based on European standards).

Emile Durkheim

-Empiricism: Data collection based on sensory experience

-Used statistical analysis on death records in his book Suicide

-Structural Functionalism (Functionalism): Structures in society have a purpose (function): biological, societal, & psychological.

-Social Integration (Social Cohesion, Social Solidarity): Nationalism, togetherness, community solidarity. How diffferent individuals create a cohesive social structure, often through shared beliefs, values, and participation in social life.

Karl Marx

Historical Materialism: Looked at historical economic systems & their stresses & strains & compared it to current day.

Means of production: What people need to have to produce other things ex. land, tools, factories.

Mode of production: How the people in a society are organized to do the work of society. Macro-level, not just division of labor.

Max Weber

Interpretivism: Understand the meaning people assign to their actions. OPPOSITE of positivism.

E.B. Tyler’s Definition of culture

“complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, & any other capabilities & habits acquired by man as a member of society”

Counterculture

Actively trying to change or shift beliefs or norms of a society. Ex. hippies

Positive sanction

Rewards

Negative Sanction

Trying to correct behavior

Culture

Beliefs and behaviors that are taken for granted to the people in that culture. It is what everybody known, what is common sense in that culture.

Learned and shared

Norms

Expected & acceptable behavior & presentation of self specific to that culture.

Values

Ideas about what is important, what we strive for, fight for. Ex. money, prestiege, family

Material Culture

Stuff

Ethnocentrism

Using one’s own values and norms to judge another culture

Cultural Relativism

All cultures are legitimate

Sociological Imagination

To see the connection between our individual identity & social context (friends & family & institutions) in which we find ourselves

How a individual lives their life (external biography) cannot be understood without refrence to the institutions it is found in.

The Sociological Imagination & The Power Elite

Challenging to the status quo & structure

Social performance of Self through Consumption

The performative aspect is often more important than a product's basic function. By acquiring and displaying goods, people signal their values, social status, and group affiliations, effectively using their purchases to "package" themselves.

Actor on a stage

Presentation of self through Consumption

How individuals use the goods and services they buy to create, communicate, and manage their identities and social status to others. Inattentional.

Fetish of the Commons

Profound separation of the consumer from the producer

Social performance of social class through consumption

social performance of social class through consumption involves using material goods and services to signal one's wealth, status, and identity within a social hierarchy

Claude Levi-Strauss

cultural binary opposites-- Nested within culture/nature

raw/cooked

raw/rotted

cooked/rotted

controlled, safe, modified/uncontrolled, harmful

illness, death/health

Cultural Capital

Some things are higher-prestige

Capital

Any valued resource. Based on culture.

Non-material Culture

-Folkways (don’t pick your nose)

-Morses: Right v wrong (don’t cheat)

-Taboos: Mores but worse (incest)

Social performance of Identity

What we eat on certain events for certain reasons/belief. Ex. collard greens & black-eyed peas

The Scientific method

An established scholarly research that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering data, analyze data, and drawing conclusions

Using an Interpretive framework

A sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing.

Descriptive Research

Describe a category or social territory

Exploratory Research

Sub of descriptive, initial exploration, 1st

Explanatory Research

Why is something the way it is, hypothesis, looking for causes

Qualitative research

Methods, such as in-depth interviews or participant observation

Quantitative research

A scientific method for systematically collecting and analyzing numerical data to discover patterns, averages, and relationships to test hypotheses and generalize findings to larger populations.

Hypothesis testing

Model that seeks to find generalizable results

Research Process Steps

-Asking a question

-Review past literature

-Forming a hypothesis

-Designing a data collection/research design

→ research method

→ sampling strategy

-gather data

-analyze data

-drawing conclusions

Structural Functionalism

-”Big theory”

-Structures in society serve a purpose (functions). They meet human biological, psychological, or societal needs

Conflict Theory

• Big theory

• Society is at competition for resources

Symbolic Interactionism

-Big theory

-A theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)

Interpretivism

Understand peoples assigned meanings to their actions

Mid-Range Theory

ex. Social Exchange Theory

Cross-sectional Research Design

Survey that collects data from a sample of a population at a single point in time.

Case Study Research Design

This is when a researcher collects data from a specific real-world phenomenon, person, group, or event in its natural context. 

Longitudinal Research Design

When a research collects data over a long period of time.

Experiments

A scientific procedure used to support or refute a hypothesis by systematically manipulating one or more variables and observing the results under controlled conditions.

Quasi-Experiment

Research designs used to estimate causal effects when random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups is not possible due to ethical, practical, or operational reasons. Does not use random assignment.

Ethnography

A qualitative research method and written product that involves in-depth, long-term immersion in a community to understand its culture, behaviors, and social organization from an insider's perspective. 

Why don’t sociologists always use experimental design (since it is the best way to test a hypothesis)?:

It is not always ethical

In-depth interview Research Method

One-on-one sessions in which an interviewer explores a topic in detail with one interviewee. These interviews are commonly used in communication research through face to face interviews.

-Retrospective Interview Technique: Help individuals reconstruct events and circumstances in a chronological order

-Known associate interview: Interviews friends, family, and/or business associates of a particular person. Goal is to gain some insight of that person as part of a larger research project about them

-Field interviewing: A semi-directed conversation in which the researcher seeks to elicit the participants’ point of view on a topic. Typically done in the participants’ environment or “field”

Questionnaires

Grounded in previous responses/data

Indexes and Scales

Lists/Inventory

Participant Observation

This type of interview would also be very time consuming as the interviewer is observing communication activities as they occur naturally. Have to employ extensive note taking or a reflection log. 

Focus Groups

-Are groups of people who are gathered together at a common location to discuss some topic under the direction of a moderator.

-They are used for collecting qualitative data about public opinion issues and tell the researcher the “why” to the “what is happening” researchers are able to get from surveys.

-The goal is to obtain new insights into the target audience and their views.

Probabilistic (random) Sampling

• Requires a sampling frame. True random selection from the sampling frame. Pros: most representative sample & can draw the strongest conclusions from your data.

• Cons: Sometimes you miss categories of people who are a small proportion of the population. Is every population you might study on a list somewhere?

Snowball (social network)

• Using participants to lead you to other participants. Used for difficult to access populations who are likely to have some linkage to each other.

Stratified or purposive

-This strategy requires dividing a population into subgroups and then randomly selecting participants from each stratum, ensuring representation across different categories.

Convenience Sample

Studying the people you find easily and are readily available. No randomization.