GRST 341-1

What are the 3 major “periods of Roman history according to most modern historians?

What are the 3 major “periods of Roman history according to most modern historians?

• The Regal Period (753-510 BCE)- Kings

• The Roman Republic (510-30 BCE)- Elected consuls: the people took power from the kings

  • early: 510-264

  • middle: 264-133

  • late: 133-30

• The Roman Empire (30 BCE-unknown)- Emperors

What was the Battle of Actium, and why was it significant?

31 BCE: During the battle, Octavian has control of the west. His troops closed in on his rival Mark Antony near Actium. Antony had control in the East and the support of Cleopatra. The battle is going poorly for Antony so Cleopatra retreats to Egypt where Antony follows. Octavian follows them here, where both Cleopatra and Anthony commit suicide, marking the end of the period. Agrippa served under Octavian as a general and was a major component/strategist in his army. In this civil war, the elected consuls were on Antony's side

Discuss Octavian/Augustus as a transitional figure at the end of the Roman Republic

Augustus becomes princeps, he consulted on everything, was given a throne, and anyone who opposed him was killed.

What effect did the strategic location of Rome have on its early development?

It is placed along the Tiber River and inland from the Tyrrhenian sea. This allowed for vital trade and transportation routes to be established.

What effect did the natural fortification of Rome have on its early development?

Rome being built on several hills allowed for natural fortification of the city, this meant that invaders had to attack uphill. The Appenines also contributed to the natural fortification of Rome

What effect did Rome being built on fertile land have on its development?

Early Rome thrived due to the surrounding area being ideal for farming and agriculture. The Tiber River allowed access to water for farming and livestock which aided their economic stability in the region

What cultures were already present in Italy when Rome began? How did they get along? Why?

Etruscans: occupied the region of Etruria, modern day Tuscany.

Greeks: occupied a portion of Southern Italy called Magna Graecia, alongside a large portion of Sicily. They had control of coastlines, were known for maritime travel, and pushed Indigenous people inland

Italic Tribes: The Latins, who occupied Latium (where Rome was). The sabines were also included but had different cultural values and perspectives

Who were the Phoenicians?

Also known as the Carthaginians, who occupied Northern Africa and a small portion of Sicily. They were pushing indigenous sicilians inland and had the earliest alphabet spread by their sea travel. Carthage was a Phoenician colony that established its own culture

Who were the Gauls?

Otherwise known as the Celts, occupied the area surrounding the Padus (Po) River and the north eastern side of the Apennines. They bordered the Veneti

How did the cultures already present in Italy when Rome began get along?

They generally did not get along during this time, and there was few times when Rome was not at war. The fighting was fueled by the desire for resources, territory, and political influence/dominance

Who were the Etruscans?

• At the height of their power when Rome began to rise to power

• An empire, traditionally 12 major cities, in a loose confederacy which was uncommon for the time

• In conflict with the Gauls and the Greeks

• Occupied the area which is now Tuscany

• Began to decline during conflict with neighbouring cultures

• Very influential on the initial development of the city of Rome

• Absorbed by the Romans once their civilization declined

• Had their own language and script which was closely related to Latin script

What was the Etruscans burial culture?

Known primarily for their necropolis’, where they buried their dead in elaborate sarcophagi. They maintained old italic culture of burying people in objects that looked like other things, while using some Greek iconography

Who was the Etruscan god Aplu, and how does this demonstrate adoption of cultures?

The Etruscan version of Apollo, which shows that they were importing aspects from other cultures. They had their own gods as well, but were “culture vultures” in the sense that they would adopt cultural aspects and myths of neighbouring cultures.

What do some of the myths of Early Rome reveal about later Roman ideals?

The idea of dominion and power, and a tendency to retroactively apply ideas and ideals of the later Roman world to the ancient stories. An example of this is the legend of the Capitoline asylum, which reflects later Roman attitudes to the integration of people into the Roman world- more people is better, as long as they are under roman control

What was the legend of the Capitoline asylum?

Romulus created an asylum for the exiled (criminals, and exclusively men) to build the population of Rome

What does the material record reveal about the Early Iron Age?

1000-725 BCE, primarily Villanovan and Latial Culture

What does the material record reveal about the “orientalizing” period of Rome?

• 725-590 BCE

• Urbanization, coalescence of pre-urban communities, and the beginning of city planning

• Connection with culture to the East of Italy (oriental means east in latin)

• Construction of monumental buildings and urban planning (from regions farther east)

• Small aristocratic elite, shown by distinct burial practices, monumental architecture, writing, and luxury goods

What does the material record reveal about the “archaic” period of early Rome?

• 590-480 BCE

• City states, an urban core with satellite communities

• High population, with more central organization

• Communal military organization, hoplite warfare

• Citizen assemblies

• A larger, competitive elite population as seen by more public monumental architecture

Discuss the use of mythology and archaeology in the construction of Rome’s earliest history

Romulus and Remus are generally considered central figures in early Roman history's mythological or legendary construction. They were sons of Mars (originally an agricultural god); Romulus kills Remus for mocking the sacred space he created. This shows the importance of ritual and religion in the Roman society. The legend of the Intervention of the Sabine women shows the later Roman ideals of integrating different cultures, the divine right of Roman conquest, and the themes of fostering harmony and dedication to the family above all else. 

The Greek tradition  (5^th c. BCE)   of the founding of Rome involves the heroes Aeneas, Odysseus and Evander. Indigenous Latin Tradition (4th c. BCE) involves the stories of Romulus and the invention of  The Lupercalia fertility festival. "Roman" tradition  (3^rd c BCE)  blends the Greek and Latin versions together and attempts to correct the chronological issues, involves Aeneas, Alba Longa and eventually leads into the Romulus myth. 

The myths are designed to connect Rome's pedigree to the cultural heroes and touchpoints of the powerful cultures at the time (Greeks, Latins, and later, the Roman identity). 

What are the differences between what tradition and archaeology say about the founding of Rome?

Tradition says it was founded in 753 BCE with the coming together of 2 peoples, archaeology says the first urbanization was in the 8th century with the unification of local communities and etruscan influence up until the 7th century

Name Rome’s 7 legendary kings

Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius Superbus

Who was Romulus?

(753-715 BCE) -Founder of Rome. War with the Sabines led to unification and dual kingship. Apotheosis from the man Romulus into the god Quirinus.

Who was Numa Pompilius?

(715-673 BCE) - Sabine Established state cults and priesthoods - gives the Romans their religion  (myth with the nymph). Established Roman law – not written down, basic laws of property and physical autonomy  

Who was Tullus Hostilius?

(673-642 BCE)- Latin Defended Rome against Alba Longa, Destroyed Alba Longa, and added Alba Longa's population to Rome.  Established the right of Rome to be dominant. 

Who was Ancus Marcius?

(642-617 BCE)- Sabine and grandson of Numa. He was a Builder – he built a bridge across the Tiber. Established control of the Janiculum hill and Control of the banks and mouth of the Tiber  

Who was Tarquinius Priscus?

(616-579 BCE) - “Tarquin the Elder” Etruscan New urban planning - The Forum, The Capitoline temple, and many other urban developments, like sanitation. His wife, Tanaquil, schemes to get him into positions of authority.

The Sibylline books – book of prophecies,  The sibyl of Cumae - books acquired by Tarquinius from her  

Who was Servius Tullius?

(578-535 BCE) - Latin name possibly adopted son of Tarquinius. Major social re-organization (timocracy). 

Who was Tarquinius Superbus?

(534-510 BCE)- “Tarquin the Proud” another possible son of Tarquinius (king 5). Etruscan A very bad man,  with a very bad wife (Tullia) - (who murders her father Servius Tullius – king 6) , and a very bad son (Sextus Tarquinius - brings about the end of the monarch in 510 with the rape of Lucretia)

How did Rome’s legendary kings serve as cultural heroes for later Romans?

Later Romans tended to retroactively apply some of their current social and political systems and achievements to the legendary cultural heroes. For example, the dual kingship of Romulus and the King of the Sabines after their war is a retrojection of the Consulship of the Republic. Tullus Hostilius is an example of Roman imperialism as a retrojection of the just war. The Servian wall – Rome's first defensive wall, is credited to Servius Tullius, even though it was built after his time. This is an example of the Romans applying significant cultural ideas and creations to the pedigree of these legendary cultural heroes. 

Rome’s last legendary kings were Etruscan. How and why is this significant?

This shows the level of cultural influence the Etrucsans had in Rome, and the decline of the Etruscan power around the time of the rising Republic. Because the Etruscans had sided with the exiled kings, Roman state is immediately at war with the Etruscans - perhaps a justification for later conflicts with the Etruscans?

What were the founding principles of the Roman Republic? How are they realized?

• Division of Power: Multiple magistrates.

• Annuality: Every magistrate had to lay down their power after a year.

• Collegiality: Each magistrate has an equally powerful colleague.

• Senatorial Guidance: The Senate serves as the advisory body for the magistrates and the voting assemblies.

• The result of no singular power, such as the king (during the regal period) created the following:

  • Consuls (had to be patrician), which were two annually elected executives of the republic. They had the power to veto, and made decisions over things like the military, the senate and execution of laws. They also held Imperium which was related to general decision making surrounding the military.

  • The Senate, which debated such laws proposed by the consulship. They would debate an issue and issues a ‘senatus consultum’.

  • The ‘Comitia Centuriata’, which elects consuls, elects serious trials and declares war and peace.

Explain the socio-economic organization of the Roman people at the beginning of the Republic

• The socio-economic organization revolved around the idea of patronage. The patron-client relationship allowed for the wealthy (patrons) to provide protection in exchange for support and services from the less wealthy (client). This helped economic stability and reinforced the idea of timocratic hierarchy.

• 2 social orders based on wealth:  

  • Patres (“fathers”) Patrician Gentes

  • Plebs (“the common people”) Plebeian Gentes

  • Patronage: patron and client (name of the system of social order)

How was political and military authority achieved in the early Roman Republic?

• Through consuls, the patrician class would be deemed a military authority called imperium. This allowed those with Imperium to make decisions and command armies.

• Political authority was typically achieved through being a patrician, and being elected into magistrates, the senate and consuls. (please add more context if any of you can)

• Military might was very important to the Romans, and successfully commanding armies was often the first step in the political ladder

• Getting elected to certain positions (i forget which ones) would allow access into the Senate, which lasts for the rest of one’s life. 

What was Timocratic hierarchy?

Based on what resources each tier can generate or provide for the war machine

What was the comitia centuriata?

• The centuriate assembly or the assembly of the centuries  

• Most important assembly in roman republic – this is maintained as a political body where each century gets one vote even when it loses the military arrangements  

• Inequal distribution of votes  

What is a century?

1. A period of 100 years.
   • e.g., “The first century BCE” = 100 BCE to 1 BCE

2. . A unit of soldiers within a Roman army
   • originally 100 men
   • in reality, usually fewer than 100 men
   • commanded by a low-ranking officer called a Centurion

3. An economic “rank” within the Roman social hierarchy
   • Citizens were divided into 193 centuries by wealth.
   • The “Assembly of Centuries” gathered according to century.
   • Two functions: (i) to supply the military (each century was to provide something). (ii) as a voting assembly (each century got one vote). 

What was the course of offices?

Commonly referred to as the ‘Cursus Honorum’:

• Censor - Censors organized the social (financial) classes of people. This would determine a family’s place on where they would vote in the Centuriate Assembly. Censors also were a form of morality police. They were elected  every 4 years if they remembered for a term of 1 year..

• Consuls

• Praetor

Were all elected by the ‘Comitia Centuriata’ which is why it was a timocratic society. They held the majority vote, and there was a small group of people that held the ability to fill these roles.

• Aedile

• Quaestor * (Admission to the Senate), bookkeepers of the state.

• Military Tribune * (between the years 444 and 367 BCE, the two consuls may have been replaced with military tribunes with consular power.)

Were elected by the ‘Comitia Tributa’ (Assembly of the tribes).

Explain the nature and purpose of public religion in Rome

• They were polytheistic which meant that they worshiped many gods overseeing multiple aspects of life and nature. These gods influenced their daily lives and the ‘fate of the state’.

• They were centered around rituals and beliefs which ensured favour of the gods.

• The pontifices and vestal virgins were a part of the colleges 'collegia’ and performed these rituals to determine and interpret the will of the gods.

• The religious nature of the state was contractual and ritualistic. 

• Contractual = ‘do ut des’, which means ‘I give so you may give’

• Ritualistic = ‘pax deorum’ which means ‘peace with the gods’

The purpose for this was largely transactional, such that the priesthoods can maintain power. This then created the idea of:

• Divination: “How you fix problems”

• The Sibylline Books: Referred to when the state is in crisis, what do they say? The interpretation is “go pick up this stone, bring it here, and everything will be ok.”

Public religion in Rome was thus a vital institution that supported the state’s political, social, and cultural framework.

Explain the significance of fetial law within early Roman foreign policy

• “Just War” (bellum iustum)

• Priests the Latin League

• Fetial Priests: Their concept of justice, and one cannot go to war without “just cause” and they are concerned with keeping “just” relationships. They are concerned if the gods are not approving of the war. The priests' jobs were ways to justify battle. Very Imperialistic way of applying this battle concept.

What was the general nature of Rome’s conflicts with its neighbours between 510 and 390 BCE?

• After the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, in 509 BCE, Rome was largely defending itself against the Latin cities and the Etruscans. The aim for this was to gain independence and assert dominance in the region.

• Rome then participated in the Latin Wars, against the Latin League which was a coalition of latin cities in the region of Latium. Rome wanted to gain influence in the region of Latium.

• Rome fought the Etruscans in the city of Veii. Rome managed to capture the city of Veii in 396 BCE, which consolidated their power in the central regions of Italy. Otherwise known as the battle of Veii.

• The Sack of Rome in 390 BCE, from the gauls in the Sennones region under Brennus. The Roman army was defeated in the Battle of Allia which led to military reforms for the Roman Republic.

How much of Rome’s early legendary history can be verified? Why is this the case?

• After the Sack of Rome in 390 BCE, we have a lack of records as everything before it was mostly destroyed.

• Many of the stories, such as Romulus and Remus, are combined myth and legend which makes it extremely difficult to separate what is fact vs. fiction.

• Archaeological Evidence provides proof of early settlements on Palatine Hill, it does not provide concrete proof of legendary events or figures during those times.

• Much of what we understand was written from historians like Livy, which was during the late republic and early empire. Given our understanding of Rome, political and cultural depictions of Rome were largely glorified.

Octavian vs Mark Antony

Octavian (heir of Julius Caesar) - “Imperator Caesar” (name to communicate social authority), ‘imperator’ appears similar to ‘emperor’ and will eventually become to mean this, but during the time of Octavian it was a lifetime honorific title given to a successful general by his soldiers. It means that the person proved a capacity for “imperium”, meaning the official power to command. Using the name “Caesar” is a reference to his adoptive father Julius Caesar, meant to instill loyalty from those who see Julius Caesar’s authority. He was seen as a god. So by using his name Octavian suggests that he should be seen as the son of a god. Octavian is consul (high elected official) for the sixth time. By the end of the Republic consuls have become “strongman figures” where they are basically claiming the consulship for themselves or exerting so much force that the people have to elect them. Octavian is not the “restorer of the Republic” but is actually the creator of a new system of government - which claims to be a republic, but is in fact dependent entirely on the goodwill and leadership of one man. The phase after the Republic sometimes called the “Principate” because everything was beholden to one man who was called the “first man” (the princeps). Octavian/Augustus gets this title from the people because he claims he doesn't want to keep getting elected Consul because it’s not traditional. So the solution was to put him in a position where he is consulted on everything, such as who should be the Consul candidates (he picks his people).With the position came a special chair in the Senate (Totally not a throne). This facade of a Republic lasts for another hundred years.  

VS. 

Mark Antony - During this time people didn’t like kings/queens, so Mark Antony’s friendship with Cleopatra did not help his favor. 

Who was Titus Livius (Livy)

59 BCE- 17 AD, Roman historian who wrote about Rome’s Early history from its beginning to the early empire

Princeps

Members of the senate who held highest offices, belonged to the leading families, had the most fame and glory

Tyrrhenian Sea

in between the mainland of italy and sardinia

Ionian Sea

south of mainland italy, in between italy and greece

Adriatic Sea

east coast of italy, in between italy and now croatia

Aegean Sea

east of greece, where all the islands are

Padus River

main river in the north of italy, now called the Po river

Tiber River

along the west coast of italy, rome was built on this river

Alps

large mountain range to the north of italian mainland

Corsica

northernmost large island west of mainland italy

Sardinia

large island below corsica

Sicily

southernmost island on “toe” of mainland

Apennines

mountain range that extends down the mainland of italy

Latium

coastal plain, very fertile, next to etruria, where rome is

Etruria

region on west coast of mainland, home to advanced civilization prior to romans, had influence on early rome

Phoenicians (carthaginians)

moved to northern coast of africa, and spread from there to spain, sardinia, and sicily

Veii

main city of etruria, located north of the tiber river, across from rome

The Alban Hills

The Alban Hills, southeast of Rome, were mythologically important as the home of Alba Longa, the legendary city founded by Aeneas' son and linked to Rome's origins. Strategically and agriculturally vital, the hills housed key religious sites, including the Temple of Jupiter, and played a role in early Rome's expansion over the Latin League

Aricia

an ancient town in Latium near the Alban Hills, was a key member of the Latin League and an important center of commerce and religion. It was known for its sanctuary to Diana, attracting pilgrims from across the region, and later became one of the first cities to be incorporated into Rome's expanding territory.

Sabines

The Sabines were an Italic tribe living northeast of Rome who played a significant role in early Roman history through their interactions, including the legendary "Rape of the Sabine Women," which helped populate early Rome. They later merged with the Romans, contributing to Roman culture, religion, and the establishment of key institutions such as the Senate.

Capitol Hill

one of the seven hills of Rome and served as the city's religious and political center

What was the palatine hill

where later roman emperors put their palaces, where romulus founds the city

Aventine

one of the seven hills of Rome, was traditionally associated with the common people (plebeians) and was a focal point for their political activity. In early Rome, it was also a religious site, housing temples such as the Temple of Diana and later becoming a symbol of plebeian rights and resistance against patrician dominance.

Pietas

Pietas in ancient Rome was the virtue of dutiful respect and devotion to one's family, gods, and country. It represented a core value of Roman society, emphasizing loyalty, duty, and moral obligation to uphold religious, familial, and civic responsibilities

Romulus

the legendary founder and first king of Rome, known for establishing the city in 753 BCE according to Roman mythology. Along with his twin brother, Remus, he was said to have been raised by a she-wolf after being abandoned as infants, and after a series of conflicts, Romulus ultimately founded Rome and gave the city its name, shaping many of its early institutions and traditions.

Remus

the twin brother of Romulus in Roman mythology, both of whom were said to be the sons of the war god Mars and raised by a she-wolf after being abandoned. Remus was killed by Romulus during a dispute over the founding of Rome, marking Romulus as the sole founder and giving rise to the city’s name and its legendary beginnings.

Mars

the Roman god of war, second in importance only to Jupiter in Roman mythology, and was also considered a god of agriculture in earlier times. As the father of Romulus and Remus, Mars was seen as a protector of Rome, embodying both military power and the virtues of Roman strength and expansion.

Lupercal

Lupercal: named after she-wolf “lupa”, a sacred cave at the base of the palatine hill

Lupercalia

fertility festival held on feb 15, overseen by special priests, the Luperci

753 BCE

the founding date of Rome, marked by the legendary establishment of the city by Romulus. This date is significant because it represents the beginning of Roman civilization, leading to the development of its political, social, and cultural institutions, which would later influence much of the ancient world and form the foundation of the Roman Republic and Empire.

Ascanius/Iulus

Ascanius, also known as Iulus, is a figure in Roman mythology and the son of Aeneas, the Trojan hero. He is significant as the founder of Alba Longa and is considered an ancestor of the Romans, linking their origins to the epic tales of the Trojan War and emphasizing the divine lineage that connects Rome to its mythic past.

Lavinium

an ancient city in Italy, founded by Aeneas after his arrival in the region, and is traditionally regarded as the place where he married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. It held significant importance as a religious center and a symbol of the connection between the Trojans and the native Italic tribes, serving as the precursor to the establishment of Alba Longa and, ultimately, Rome.

Alba Longa

ancient city in Italy, traditionally believed to have been founded by Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, and is considered the mythical predecessor of Rome. It was a significant center for the early Latin peoples and played a crucial role in the legends surrounding the origins of Rome, including the tale of Romulus and Remus, who were said to be descendants of its kings.

Familia

referred to the household unit, which included not only the nuclear family (parents and children) but also extended family members, slaves, and other dependents living under one roof. The concept of familia encompassed social, legal, and economic aspects of Roman life, emphasizing the authority of the paterfamilias (the male head of the household) and playing a crucial role in the social structure and values of Roman society, such as duty, loyalty, and respect for tradition.

Gens

referred to a social group or clan consisting of families who shared a common name and claimed descent from a common ancestor. Each gens had its own traditions, customs, and sometimes a specific religious cult, and it played a vital role in Roman identity and politics, influencing social status, political alliances, and marriage choices within Roman society.

Patrons

individuals of higher social status who provided protection, support, and resources to their clients, typically of lower status. This relationship, known as clientela, was characterized by mutual obligations: patrons offered legal and financial assistance, while clients provided loyalty, services, and support in political and social matters, forming a crucial aspect of Roman social and political life.

Titus Tatius

a king of the Sabines and a significant figure in early Roman history, known for his role in the legendary tale of the Rape of the Sabine Women. Following this event, he became a co-ruler with Romulus in Rome after a war between the Romans and the Sabines, and he is often credited with helping to unify the two groups, establishing important social and religious institutions in the nascent city.

Quirinius

Roman deity associated with war and was later identified with the god Mars. Originally a god of the Sabines, he became significant in Roman religion, especially during the Republic and early Empire, where he was often invoked in matters of state and warfare, and was regarded as a protector of the Roman people, embodying the virtues of military strength and civic duty.

Numa Pompilius

Second king of Rome, credited with establishing religious institutions, priesthoods, and early roman law

Tullus Hostilius

Third king of rome, known for his warlike nature and the destruction of Alba Longa

Ancus Marcius

Fourth king of Rome, remembered for establishing the port of ostia and expanding roman control over the tiber river

Lucretia

Roman noblewoman whose rape and suicide by Sextus Tarquinius sparked the revolution that led to the establishment of the republic

Tarquinius Priscus

Fifth king of Rome, an etruscan who contributed significantly to Roman Infrastructure, including the circus maximus, cloaca maxima, and the forum

Servius Tullius

Sixth king of Rome, credited with building the servian wall and implementing social reforms, including the organization of the comitia centuriata

Tarquinius Superbus

Last king of rome, known for his tyrannical rule, which ultimately led to his expulsion and the founding of the republic

Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis

Early Roman consul and censor, played a significant role in the early republic, known for his conservative views and infrastructure projects

Lucius Junius Brutus

Founder of the Roman Republic, instrumental in the overthrow of the monarchy and establishing the consulship

Publius Valerius Publicola

One of the first consuls of Rome, known for his support of the people and instituting laws that protected their rights

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

Roman citizen and statesman who was twice appointed dictator, known for his dedication to civic duty and simple life

Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus

Roman general who was exiled from Rome and subsequently led the Volsci against his former city

Cossus

Roman consul who won the Spolia Opima for the second time by killing the enemy leader in battle

Tolumnius

Etruscan king killed by the Roman consul Cossus in battle, resulting in Cossus winning the Spolia Opima

Marcus Furius Camillus

Roman general and statesman, hailed as the second founder of rome for his role in rebuilding the city after the gallic sack, a prominent figure during the early republic

Valerius and Horatius

Consuls in 449 BCE who passed laws recognizing the Plebian Assembly and their tribunes

C. Licinius and L. Sextius

Tribunes who proposed laws in 367 BCE that aimed to alleviate debt and land ownership inequality

Titus Tatius

King of the Sabines who went to war with Rome after the abduction of the Sabine women, later ruled jointly with Romulus

Tarpeia

Roman maiden who betrayed Rome to the Sabines, often depicted as being crushed to death by their shields

The Horatii Brothers

Triplets from Roman legend who fought a duel against 3 brothers from Alba Longa, symbolizing Roman valor and loyalty