POL2103 IR final exam

What is IR?

study of how countries interact, make policies, and handle conflicts (UN)

Origins of IR

formal academic discipline in the 20th century

Grew after World War I to understand war and peace

Positivism

Focuses on facts and observable events (e.g study war by looking at data)

Post-Positivism

Questions objectivity and considers different perspectives (e.g how people interpret war)

Idealists vs. Realists

Should IR focus on morals (human rights, ethics) vs power (competition, survival)

Behavioralists vs. Traditionalists

Should IR be studied scientifically (data, testable) or historically (philosophy, qualitative methods)

Inter-Paradigm Debate

What’s the best way to study IR (what IR should study, how it should be studied, and what drives international politics)

Idealism

Belief that international politics should focus on moral values and cooperation.

Realism

Belief that international politics is based on power and self-interest

Behavioralism

Approach that applies scientific methods to study IR.

Ontology

study of actors making up the world and what exists in IR (e.g., key actors, structures, and forces shaping IR).

Epistemology

study of how we know things in IR (how do we know what we know in IR, methods should be used to study IR)

Methodology

study of how to research IR topics (epistemology + research methods)

Classical Realism (Hans Morgenthau)

States want power based on national interest because humans want power (human nature)

Neo-Realism

States want power because the international system lacks central authority (anarchy) forces states to seek power/security (self-help)

Anarchy

No central authority in international politics

Balance of Power

Countries form alliances to prevent one from becoming too powerful

Self-Help

Countries must protect themselves because no one else will

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

idea that nuclear war is prevented because both sides would be destroyed.

Classical Liberalism/idealism (Immanuel Kant)

Emphasize perpetual peace via cooperation and interdependence (EU countries don’t go to war) associated with republicanism

Complex Interdependence

Countries are linked economically, making war costly.

Neo-Liberalism institutionalism (Robert Keohane)

Despite anarchy institutions (e.g., the UN) help countries work together

Democratic Peace Theory

Democracies don’t go to war with each other because they share values (e.g U.S. and Canada never fought war)

English School IR

mix of realism and liberalism, recognizing both power and international society (e.g countries follow international laws=liberalism, power still matters=realism)

International Society

Even though there’s no world government, states follow common rules (e.g diplomats respect each other’s embassies)

Marxism in IR

economic structures shape international politics (e.g rich countries=core, exploit poor countries=periphery for resources)

Karl Marx

history shaped by class struggle

Lenin

Capitalism leads to imperialism.

Neo-Marxism (Gramsci)

Power is cultural and ideological domination; elites maintain power through shaping ideas (hegemony)

Feminist IR

Challenges male-dominated perspectives in international relations (e.g war often studied from male perspective ignoring women's experiences)

Liberal Feminism(Cynthia Enloe)

IR ignores women’s roles; personal is international; focuses on legal equality as key to women's emancipation in politics

Radical Feminism

Challenges patriarchy

Post-Colonial Feminism

Considers race, class, and gender.

Emancipatory Knowledge

Knowledge that seeks to challenge oppression

Status quo states

countries that are satisfied with the current international system and seek to maintain or defend it.

Revisionist states

countries that challenge the existing global order and want to change the distribution of power or international rules

Defensive Neo-Realism (Kenneth Waltz)

States seek enough power to ensure their survival but do not aggressively try to dominate others (too much power=less secure

Offensive Neo-Realism (John Mearsheimer)

States always seek more power, the only way to be truly secure is to become most dominant power (no world government best defense=strong offense.

Gideon Rose

coined term neo-classical realism in a 1998

argues how a country reacts to external threats depends on its internal politics

Neo-classical realism

country’s foreign policy shaped by international pressures (power balance) and domestic factors (leaders, institutions, perceptions).

Randall Schweller

some status quo states (defend the system), while others are revisionist states

state's behavior depends on its domestic leadership, political culture, and national ambitions, not just the balance of power.

Thucydides (c. 460 BC – c. 400 BC)

History of the Peloponnesian War

Power determines political outcomes( not morality/justice)

Conflict is inevitable because states seek power

Stronger states dominate weaker ones

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)

The Muqaddimah

Humans and states are driven by self-interest and survival

History shows a cycle of conquest and decline

Leaders must act differently from individuals (morality stave vs person)

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527)

The Prince

Leaders should do whatever is necessary to maintain power

ruler must sometimes be cruel for the greater good

leader must use power strategically (survival)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Leviathan

Without a strong government, life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

Without world government, states exist in constant competition

Power is the only way to ensure security

Statism

state is the primary and most important actor in IR

Structure-Centred Liberalism

IR shaped by domestic structures (political institutions, economic systems, social hierarchies) (e.g even if president seeks aggression, Congress can block it through domestic constraints)

Actor-Centred Liberalism

Focuses on individual actors (leaders, businesses, political groups) and their responses to international constraints (e.g Apple/Tesla pressure U.S. government to keep trade relations w/China due to their reliance on Chinese supply chains)

Rationalism liberal theory

States and actors make decisions logically and strategically based on costs and benefits (e.g countries join EU offers economic and security benefits)

Constructivism in Liberal Theory

International politics is shaped by ideas, norms, and interactions between actors (e.g countries follow UN human rights norms because they view them as legitimate)

What neo-liberals and neo-realists agree on

Anarchy exists

States are key actors

States rational pursuing national interests

What neo-liberals and neo-realists disagree on

Neo-Realists: institutions are weak; Neo-Liberals: institutions matter

Neo-Realists: security = Military Power; Neo-Liberals: security = economic and diplomatic cooperation.

Rationalist (democratic peace theory)

Democracies have institutional checks that make declaring war difficult.

held accountable by voters, who often oppose war.

Decision-making is divided among multiple branches of government (impulsive military action less likely)

Constructivist (democratic peace theory)

Democracies view other democracies positively

Democracies engage in cooperation,reducing misunderstandings.

Shared norms and identity

Criticisms of Liberal IR Theory

struggles to explain global shifts like war or nationalism

no clear definition of power

Rationality is subjective

Western bias (democracy/free trade universal)

States don’t always have full/accurate information

Pluralist approaches

state-centric

State action creates international law

Order foundation for justice

fragile international order

Solidarist Approaches

Ethics, justice, and well-being matter just as state sovereignty

just international system is necessary

International law should protect human rights

States intervene in humanitarian crises

Critiques of English School

does not clearly explain why events happen

Understating uncertainties of anarchical systems

doesn’t explain how states convince others to join institution

ignores the role of corporations, NGOs…

doesn’t explain institutional decline

Historical Materialism (Marxism)

economic production shapes society, politics, and history.

Base (Marxism)

Economic foundation (mode & relations of production).

Historical Analysis

Society evolves through class struggles and economic transformation

Superstructure

Institutions (laws, media, education) that support the base.

Dialectics

history changes through contradictions and conflicts (thesis → antithesis → synthesis)

Class struggle

The ongoing conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers)

Commodification

Turning everything (labor, goods, services, even human relations) into something that can be bought or sold

Surplus value

extra value created by workers that is kept as profit by capitalists, leading to exploitation.

Alienation

Workers feel disconnected from their labor, products, and society under capitalism

Capitalism

economic system where private owners control production for profit, leading to innovation but also inequality.

Socialism

system where production is controlled by the workers or the state, aiming to eliminate class exploitation.

Lenin’s Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)

argues that imperialism is the final stage of capitalism, driven by monopolies and the need for expansion.

Capitalist States/urgeColonialism

Advanced capitalist nations expand overseas to control resources, labor, and markets, ensuring continued profits

Monopoly Capital, Cartels, New Markets

Large corporations (monopolies and cartels) dominate economies and seek global expansion to avoid economic crises.

Muting Class Revolt in the Core

Wealth from colonies helps imperialist nations "bribe" their working class with better wages, preventing revolutions

Inter-Imperialist Rivalries as the Cause of War

Competing empires fight over resources and markets, leading to global conflicts (e.g., World War I)

War’s Inherent Economic Base

Wars are driven by economic needs, as imperialist nations seek new territories and profits through military force.

No Revolution? → Hegemony

ruling class maintains power through hegemony controlling culture, and institutions to secure consent from masses.

Diffusion of Hegemony

Hegemony spreads through institutions like schools, families, shaping public consciousness to accept status quo.

historic bloc

alliance of ruling class forces maintaining hegemony

counter-historic bloc

emerging coalition challenging the dominant ideology

War of position

slow struggle for cultural and ideological change within society (needed in advanced capitalist nations).

War of manoeuvre

Direct revolutionary confrontation (as in Russia 1917).

Production, Power, and World Order (1987)

Cox critiques mainstream IR by applying Gramsci’s ideas to global politics.

Purpose of Theory

"Theory is always for someone and for some purpose"; it serves power interests.

Knowledge Production

Knowledge reflects power structures; critical theory challenges dominant ideologies.

Pax Britannica

British-led 19th-century global order (trade & colonialism)

Pax Americana

U.S.-led 20th-century order (military & capitalism)

Social Forces

Power comes from both states and global actors (capitalists, corporations, NGOs)

Internationalization of the State

States serve global capitalism, not just national interests

Problem-Solving Theory

Accepts world as it is and works within existing structures.
Focuses on predicting outcomes and solving specific issues.
Treats politics as ahistorical (not considering how things developed).
Claims objectivity (neutral, fact-based analysis).

Critical Theory

Questions how world came to be/challenges existing structures.
Explains historical change and power dynamics.
Focuses on (what should be, rather than just what is)

Frankfurt School Values (FS)

Challenges the separation of objective facts and subjective values, arguing that all knowledge is shaped by ideology.

Knowledge Production (FS)

Questions how institutions and media shape beliefs and prevent revolutionary change/superstructures

Embourgeoisement of the Working Class (FS)

Workers adopt middle-class values, reducing their revolutionary potential.

Communicative Action

Jürgen Habermas’s idea that rational dialogue can lead to social transformation

Andrew Linklater’s Transformation Political Community (1998)

Examines how political communities evolve beyond national borders.

De-Reification of States (FS)

Challenges the idea of states as fixed, arguing they are socially constructed.

Transcending Borders (FS)

Advocates for global responsibility and ethical obligations beyond the nation-state

Marxian IR criticism

too focused on class and economics, missing other global dynamics.

Overestimate inevitability of revolutionary change

Nationalism as distraction from class struggle

Overlooks political, ideological, and security motivations.for war

Androcentric Knowledge

IR has historically been shaped by male perspectives, ignoring gendered experiences.

Power/Knowledge Nexus

way IR defines power is gendered, privileging war and state security over social issues