international relations terms

mercantilism

A doctrine with the belief that military and economic power go hand in hand, applied to colonial empires in the 16–18 centuries favoring the mother country over the colonies. Significance: Central to early imperial competition, framed trade as zero-sum and incentivized colonial expansion. Example: Britain benefiting financially from colonies only being able to trade with Britain and being taxed

peace of westphalia

Settlement that ended the Thirty Years' War. Significance: First definition of states having sovereignty and recognized non-intervention. Example: States being in control exclusively of what happens in their borders

sovereignty

The idea that states have full legal and political authority within their territorial borders. Significance: Formed the base principle of non-intervention and the state-centric focus that is foundational to international relations. Example: States being able to set their own rules for policies and regime type in their borders

hegemony

Predominance of one state over others. Significance: Hegemonic states can shape structures of international relations over other states, particularly norms and institutions. Example: Britain during Pax Britannica

pax britannica

A century-long period of “British peace” where Britain's economic and diplomatic influence contributed to economic openness and relative peace. Significance: Led to a century of relative peace and open trade. Example: Britain acting as a “global police,” protecting trade routes and maintaining balance

gold standard

Monetary system where countries tied their currencies to gold at a legally fixed price. Significance: Encouraged international financial security and investments across borders, facilitating globalization. Example: Enabled cross-border financial transactions without great risks of values changing

treaty of versailles

Peace treaty that ended WWI and imposed reparations on Germany. Significance: Showed how postwar settlements can shape international order and plant seeds for future conflict. Example: German losses leading to WWII

league of nations

First collective security organization founded after WWI (U.S. didn’t join), aimed to prevent wars through diplomacy. Significance: Early experiment at using institutions to resolve conflict diplomatically

precursor to the UN. Example: Attempted to disarm aggressor nations like Japan and Italy

north atlantic treaty organization (NATO)

Alliance formed between the U.S., Canada, and Western Europe in response to Soviet threats. Significance: Institutionalized collective defense during the Cold War and counterbalanced Soviet expansion. Example: Deferred Soviet aggression

bretton woods system

Economic order with fixed exchange rates and cooperative trade rules among Allied nations. Significance: Institutionalized global economic cooperation and laid groundwork for modern international trade. Example: Led to the creation of the IMF and World Bank

warsaw pact

Military alliance of the Soviet Union and its allies, dissolved at the end of the Cold War. Significance: Illustrated how alliance systems structured global competition and balance of power. Example: Formed in response to West Germany joining NATO

decolonization

Process by which colonies gained independence and self-determination from imperial powers. Significance: Shifted global power dynamics, created new states, and reshaped international norms. Example: India gaining independence and becoming a major power

interests

What actors want to achieve through political actions. Significance: Interests shape behavior in IR—what states or actors pursue influences how they interact. Example: U.S. interest in oil influencing involvement in the Middle East

actors

Basic unit of analysis in international politics—can be individuals or groups sharing common interests. Significance: Actors are those who take action in IR

theories revolve around their preferences and actions. Example: The U.S. government, the president, or interest groups

state

Central authority that can make and enforce laws within a specific territory. Significance: The primary actor in most IR theories. Example: China or Italy

anarchy

Absence of a central authority that enforces binding laws across actors. Significance: Makes international enforcement difficult and explains much of the insecurity in IR. Example: No global police during the Cold War

national interests

Interests attributed to the state itself—often centered on security and power. Significance: Drive state behavior in theories like realism. Example: U.S. interest in counterterrorism after 9/11

interactions

Ways choices of two or more actors combine to produce outcomes. Significance: Central to diplomacy and conflict resolution. Example: WWI or WWII negotiations and alliances

cooperation

Two or more actors adopt policies that make at least one better off without making others worse off. Significance: Fundamental to international agreements. Example: Paris Climate Accord

coordination

Actors benefit from making the same choice and have no reason not to comply. Significance: Easier to maintain than collaboration. Example: Driving on the same side of the road

collaboration

Actors benefit from working together but have incentives not to comply. Significance: Explains why institutions are needed to monitor and enforce agreements. Example: Arms reduction agreements post-conflict

bargaining

Interaction where actors divide something of value—one gains at another's expense. Significance: Central to understanding conflict and negotiations. Example: Dividing territory between nations

public goods

Non-excludable and non-rival goods like defense or clean air. Significance: Prone to free rider problems in global governance. Example: World peace or environmental preservation

collective action problems

Obstacles where actors benefit from cooperation but have incentives not to contribute. Significance: Makes cooperation difficult even with shared goals. Example: NATO burden-sharing debates

free ride

Gaining benefits without contributing. Significance: Undermines cooperation. Example: Countries using U.S. naval power without maintaining their own

iteration

Repeated interactions over time. Significance: Builds trust and deterrence for non-cooperation. Example: Trade negotiations in the WTO

linkage

Tying cooperation on one issue to another. Significance: Encourages compliance by increasing the cost of defection. Example: Linking trade deals to human rights compliance

power

Ability of one actor to get another to do something they wouldn’t otherwise do. Significance: Central to understanding coercion and influence in IR. Example: U.S. setting the global economic agenda

coercion

Threat or imposition of costs to influence another’s behavior. Significance: Explains military and economic pressure tactics. Example: Sanctions on Iran

outside options

Alternatives to negotiation that give leverage. Significance: Strengthens bargaining position. Example: EU having other trade partners during Brexit

agenda setting

Influencing what issues are considered or what the fallback position is. Significance: Shapes negotiation dynamics and outcomes. Example: U.S. hosting Bretton Woods talks post-WWII

institutions

Shared rules that structure political interactions. Significance: Reduce uncertainty and foster cooperation. Example: The UN

realism

Core assumptions: States are rational, unitary actors in an anarchic system with survival as the primary goal, achieved through power and security. Holds a zero-sum view: one state's gain is another's loss. Military power is the ultimate currency, and human nature is seen as self-interested and power-seeking. Important terms: Classical realism (conflict stems from human nature) vs. Neorealism (conflict stems from anarchy). System structure (bipolar, unipolar, multipolar) shapes behavior. Security dilemma: defensive actions appear threatening. Balance of power: states align to counter stronger powers. Criticisms: Too focused on conflict, ignores domestic politics, weak at explaining cooperation and institutional growth. Significance: One of the oldest IR theories, explains power and conflict, emphasizing that cooperation is difficult and temporary. Example: Cold War arms race showing mutual balancing and security competition

liberalism

Core assumptions: Anarchy exists, but cooperation is possible. Interests are shaped by domestic politics and economic ties. Multiple actors matter, including NGOs and firms. Holds a positive-sum view of cooperation and mutual gains. Important terms: Democratic Peace Theory (mature democracies rarely fight each other). Institutions and economic interdependence reduce uncertainty and raise the cost of war. Criticisms: Too idealistic, assumes harmony of interests, ignores power asymmetries, underplays conflict. Significance: Explains peaceful cooperation, institutions, and how democracy and economics shape peace. Example: The European Union promoting peace through economic and institutional integration

constructivism

Core assumptions: The international system is socially constructed, not objectively given. Ideas, norms, and identities shape interests and behavior. "Anarchy is what states make of it." Important terms: Norms and socialization — shared expectations about behavior shape compliance. Identity and interests — states act based on who they are, not just what they want. Example: Germany’s post-WW2 pacifism. Criticisms: Hard to measure norms, circular reasoning, lacks predictive power. Significance: Challenges materialist theories by showing how shared beliefs and social norms shape behavior. Example: Global norm against chemical weapons shows behavior is shaped by norms, not just utility

structuralism (marxism)

Core assumptions: The global capitalist system is exploitative

class relations are the main driver of IR, not states. Power is primarily economic. Important terms: Dependency theory — global inequality is structured and reinforced by capitalism. World systems theory (Wallerstein): core (rich), periphery (poor), semi-periphery (middle) structure the world. Imperialism and capitalism drive state behavior. Criticisms: Overly deterministic, outdated Cold War lens, lacks concrete policy solutions. Significance: Emphasizes inequality, imperialism, and class, arguing the system benefits the rich at the expense of the poor. Example: European colonialism in Africa illustrates global economic exploitation

feminist theory

Critiques male-dominated IR assumptions, focusing on how gender shapes war, peace, and leadership. Highlights overlooked issues like sexual violence in war, care work, and women’s exclusion from decision-making. Significance: Broadens IR by showing how gender influences diplomacy, security, and conflict. Example: Emphasizes peacebuilding roles of women and critiques the absence of gender in mainstream IR theory

environmentalism

Examines IR through the lens of environmental sustainability, challenging the state-centric and human-centric focus of traditional theories. Focuses on ecological interdependence, climate justice, and long-term survival. Significance: Stresses the need for sustainable, cooperative solutions that go beyond borders. Critiques short-term, economic-growth driven models. Example: Paris Climate Agreement shows international and multi-actor cooperation on global threats
insurgency

counterinsurgency

operations intended to ease fear created by insurgency by making the government's commitment to defend its civilians more credible. Significance: focuses on winning “hearts and minds” through governance, development, and security. Example: US counterinsurgency strategy in Afghanistan involving local policing and aid programs

extremists

actors whose interests are not widely shared by others and are politically weak relative to the demands they make. Significance: often turn to terrorism due to lack of support or political access. Example: white nationalists in the US

coercion (terrorism)

a strategy of imposing or threatening costs on civilians to induce policy change by governments. Significance: a core tactic of terrorist groups to influence strong states indirectly. Example: 9/11 as an attempt to change US policy

provocation

a strategy of terrorist attacks intended to provoke the target government into an overreaction that alienates civilians and builds sympathy for the terrorists. Significance: helps terrorists gain recruits and legitimacy. Example: 9/11 provoking overreach in Afghanistan

spoiling

a strategy of terrorist attacks intended to sabotage peace efforts between a target and moderate leadership. Significance: undermines negotiations and prolongs conflict. Example: Hamas attacks during Israel-Palestine peace talks

outbidding

a strategy of terrorist attacks designed to demonstrate greater capability and commitment than rival groups. Significance: escalates violence and weakens moderates. Example: Hamas and Fatah competing in the Palestinian cause
realism

liberalism

Core assumptions: Anarchy exists, but cooperation is possible. Interests are shaped by domestic politics and economic ties. Multiple actors matter, including NGOs and firms. Holds a positive-sum view of cooperation and mutual gains. Important terms: Democratic Peace Theory (mature democracies rarely fight each other). Institutions and economic interdependence reduce uncertainty and raise the cost of war. Criticisms: Too idealistic, assumes harmony of interests, ignores power asymmetries, underplays conflict. Significance: Explains peaceful cooperation, institutions, and how democracy and economics shape peace. Example: The European Union promoting peace through economic and institutional integration

constructivism

Core assumptions: The international system is socially constructed, not objectively given. Ideas, norms, and identities shape interests and behavior. "Anarchy is what states make of it." Important terms: Norms and socialization — shared expectations about behavior shape compliance. Identity and interests — states act based on who they are, not just what they want. Example: Germany’s post-WW2 pacifism. Criticisms: Hard to measure norms, circular reasoning, lacks predictive power. Significance: Challenges materialist theories by showing how shared beliefs and social norms shape behavior. Example: Global norm against chemical weapons shows behavior is shaped by norms, not just utility

structuralism (marxism)

Core assumptions: The global capitalist system is exploitative

class relations are the main driver of IR, not states. Power is primarily economic. Important terms: Dependency theory — global inequality is structured and reinforced by capitalism. World systems theory (Wallerstein): core (rich), periphery (poor), semi-periphery (middle) structure the world. Imperialism and capitalism drive state behavior. Criticisms: Overly deterministic, outdated Cold War lens, lacks concrete policy solutions. Significance: Emphasizes inequality, imperialism, and class, arguing the system benefits the rich at the expense of the poor. Example: European colonialism in Africa illustrates global economic exploitation

feminist theory

Critiques male-dominated IR assumptions, focusing on how gender shapes war, peace, and leadership. Highlights overlooked issues like sexual violence in war, care work, and women’s exclusion from decision-making. Significance: Broadens IR by showing how gender influences diplomacy, security, and conflict. Example: Emphasizes peacebuilding roles of women and critiques the absence of gender in mainstream IR theory

environmentalism

Examines IR through the lens of environmental sustainability, challenging the state-centric and human-centric focus of traditional theories. Focuses on ecological interdependence, climate justice, and long-term survival. Significance: Stresses the need for sustainable, cooperative solutions that go beyond borders. Critiques short-term, economic-growth driven models. Example: Paris Climate Agreement shows international and multi-actor cooperation on global threats