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Revolution
A fundamental change in political power.
Scientific Revolution
Emergence of modern science in 15-1600s.
Heliocentrism
Sun-centered model of the solar system.
Isaac Newton
Formulated laws of motion and gravity.
William Harvey
Discovered blood circulation in the body.
Empiricism
Knowledge through evidence and experimentation.
Rene Descartes
Philosopher known for rational thinking.
Social Contract
Agreement where government derives power from consent.
Montesquieu
Proposed separation of powers in government.
Voltaire
Advocated for freedom of expression.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Introduced concept of popular sovereignty.
Diderot
Compiled Enlightenment thought in the Encyclopedie.
American Revolution
Colonial revolt against British rule (1775-1783).
Nationalism
Strong identification with one's nation.
Thomas Hobbes
Believed humans are naturally individualistic.
John Locke
Argued for natural rights to life, liberty, property.
Candide
Voltaire's work on optimism and critique of society.
The Spirit of Laws
Montesquieu's work on government structure.
Enlightenment
Intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism.
Declaration of Independence
Document asserting American colonies' freedom.
Philosophes
Enlightenment thinkers promoting reason in society.
French Assistance
Support provided by France to American revolutionaries.
Constitution
Established a democratic republic in 1789.
Federalism
System of shared power between government levels.
Separation of powers
Political doctrine by Montesquieu for government structure.
Consent of the governed
Legitimacy derived from the people's approval.
Three Estates
Social hierarchy in pre-revolutionary France.
Ancien Regime
Absolute monarchy system in France before revolution.
Louis XIV
French king (1643-1715) who centralized power.
3rd Estate
Commoners facing heavy financial burdens in France.
Estates General
Assembly representing France's three estates.
National Assembly
Formed by 3rd Estate to challenge monarchy.
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Document asserting individual rights during French Revolution.
Constitutional Monarchy
Government with a monarch's powers limited by law.
Bastille Prison
Symbol of tyranny stormed during the revolution.
Committee of Public Safety
Governing body during the Reign of Terror.
Directory
Government following the Committee of Public Safety.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Declared himself emperor of France in 1804.
Napoleonic Code
Legal framework established by Napoleon.
Haitian Revolution
Slave uprising inspired by French Revolution ideals.
Toussaint L'Overture
Leader of the Haitian Revolution for independence.
Mexican War for Independence
Started in 1811, led by Miguel Hidalgo.
Simon Bolivar
Key figure in Latin American independence movements.
Nationalism
Creating a state from shared societal identities.
Industrial Revolution
Significant transformation in production and society.
Great Britain
Origin of the Industrial Revolution due to resources.
Resource advantages
Natural resources aiding industrial growth in Britain.
Political advantages
Legal frameworks and colonies supporting industrialization.
Economic advantages
Capital and labor dynamics favoring machine investment.
Industrial Revolution
Period of major industrial growth beginning in Britain.
Steam Engine
Power source surpassing wind and water for machines.
James Watt
Improved steam engine efficiency in 1782.
Textile Manufacturing
Industry focused on fabric production and innovation.
Flying Shuttle
1733 invention enhancing weaving speed.
Spinning Jenny
1764 machine increasing yarn production efficiency.
Cotton Gin
Eli Whitney's 1793 invention for cotton processing.
Interchangeable Parts
Standardized components allowing mass production.
Cromford Mill
First water-powered cotton mill in Derbyshire.
Slater Mill
First American factory, established by Samuel Slater.
Trans-Siberian Railroad
Russia's major infrastructure project for industrialization.
Meiji Restoration
Japan's rapid industrialization and modernization post-1868.
First Industrial Revolution
Focused on steam power and textiles.
Second Industrial Revolution
Characterized by oil, steel, and electricity innovations.
Bessemer Process
1853 method for mass-producing steel efficiently.
Tanzimat Reforms
Ottoman modernization efforts in the 1820s-70s.
Self-Strengthening Movement
Qing dynasty's failed attempt to modernize.
Mercantilism
Economic theory evolving into capitalism during this era.
Transnational Companies
Businesses operating across national borders in capitalism.
Laissez-Faire
Minimal government intervention in economic affairs.
Supply and Demand
Economic model determining prices based on availability.
Thomas Malthus
Proposed population growth leads to inevitable poverty.
Iron Law of Wages
Wages will only cover workers' survival needs.
Free-Market Capitalism
Economic system with minimal government regulation.
State Capitalism
Government directs industrial priorities with private contracts.
Bourgeoisie
Middle class controlling capital and production means.
Proletariat
Working class providing labor in capitalist systems.
Socialism
Community-managed means of production for collective benefit.
Communism
Class struggle leads to a classless society.
Trade Unions
Workers unite for better wages and conditions.
Child Labor
Employment of children in unsafe working environments.
Urbanization
Population shift from rural to urban areas.
Tenements
Overcrowded urban housing with poor living conditions.
Public Education
Mandatory schooling for children in industrial societies.
Leisure Time
Free time for recreation and sports activities.
Public Transit
Transportation systems for city inhabitants.
Industrial Slums
Poor urban areas with inadequate sanitation and housing.
Cholera
Infectious disease prevalent in unsanitary conditions.
Anarchism
Political philosophy rejecting all forms of government.
Utopias
Ideal communities aimed at social reform.
Population Growth
Increase in population numbers over time.
Abolition of Slavery
Ending slavery in various nations between 1794-1888.
Declaration of Sentiments
1848 document advocating for women's suffrage.
Cult of Domesticity
19th-century ideology emphasizing women's roles at home.
Separation of Church and State
Distinction between religious institutions and government.
Charles Darwin
Naturalist known for theory of evolution.
On the Origin of Species
Darwin's 1859 work on natural selection.
The Descent of Man
Darwin's 1871 exploration of human evolution.
Social Darwinism
Application of Darwin's theories to social issues.
Germ Theory
Scientific theory linking germs to disease.
Islamic Fundamentalism
Strict interpretation of Islam in response to modernity.