Chapter 11: Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Both _______ are included within the general category of thinking

Thinking

It requires people to go beyond the information they were given to reach their goals

Understanding the Problem

It is the first step in Problem Solving

Select a Strategy for Solving It

It is the second step in Problem Solving

Examine the Factors that Influence Effective Problem Solving

It is the third step in problem solving

Problem Solving

It is a process necessary to reach a goal, typically in situations where solutions is not immediately obvious

Trial-and-Error Approach

It is used when people try to solve a problem, where they’re trying different opinions at random until they find a solution

Metacognition

People also use ______ to monitor if their problem solving strategies seem to be working effectively

Problem Solving

One cognitive task, specifically _____, relies on other cognitive tasks such as attention, memory, and decision making

Creativity

It is an area that requires finding novel solutions to challenging problems

Initial State

The ______ is the situation at the beginning of the problem

Goal State

The _______ is when and where you solve/resolve the problem

Obstacles

The ______ describes the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

Problem Representation

It refers to the way people translate the elements of the problem into a different format

Symbols

It is sometimes the most effective way to represent an abstract problem

True

An often major challenge for problem solvers is when they try to translate words into symbols

[True or False]

Matrices

It refers to:

• A grid consisting of rows and columns; it shows all possible combinations of items

  • An excellent way to keep track of items, particularly if the problem is complex and if the relevant information is categorical

Diagrams

It refers to:

• A best representation of abstract information in a concrete fashion and discard unnecessary details

  • A best representation for large amount and complicated information

Graph

It is sometimes the most effective kind of diagram for representing visual information during problem solving

Visual Images

A good skill in this particular area provide an advantage when a problem requires people to construct a figure

Situated Cognition Approach

According to the _____, people often use helpful information in their immediate environment to create spatial representations

Embodied Cognition Approach

According to the ______, people often use their own body and own motor actions in order to express their abstract thoughts and knowledge, emphasizing the person’s own body

False

People do not use both situated and embodied cognition when they try to solve problems, instead they tend to rely only on a specific cognition one at a time.

[True or False]

Traditional Cognitive Approach

The ________ to thinking emphasizes the processes that take place inside an individual’s head, which the situated cognition approach argues as well as something that is simplistic.

Embodied Cognition Approach

It states that people solve certain kinds of problems more quickly or more accurately if they allow them to move parts of their body

Algorithm

It is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient

Exhaustive Search

It is a particular example of an algorithm in which people try out all possible answers using a specified system

Heuristic

It is a general rule that is usually correct but does not guarantee a correct solution

Analogy Approach

People who use a/n _______ in problem solving, employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help them solve a new problem

Analogies

These are prominent when people make creative breakthroughs in areas such as art, politics, science, and engineering

Problem Isomorphs

It refers to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details

True

People tend to pay attention to the obvious surface features such as the specific objects and terms used in the question, and later on fail to emphasize the structural features, the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly

Means-ends Heuristics

It has two important components:

• Divide the problem into a number of subproblems or smaller problems

• Try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems

Means-ends Heuristics

It requires people to identify the “ends” they want and then figure out the “means” or the methods that they will use to reach those ends

Working Memory

The ______ is active when people are planning one of the movement sequences in the means-ends heuristics

True

Research states that people are reluctant to move away from the goal state even if the correct solution requires them to make a temporary detuor

[True or False]

Computer Simulation

It was devised to account for the way humans use means-ends analysis to solve well-define problems, being conducted through a computer program that will perform a task in the same way that a human would.

General Problem Solver

It is a program whose basic strategy is means-end analysis, aiming to mimic the processes that normal humans use when they tackle these problems while utilizing several different methods of operating, including the difference-reduction strategy

Hill-Climbing Heuristic

It refers to a heuristic that constantly chooses the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

Bottom-Up Processing

These are information about the stimulus as registered on our sensory receptors

Top-Down Processing

It refers to the concepts, expectations, and memory acquired thru past experiences

Expertise

It refers to the demonstration of consistent exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area

True

People with expertise in one area typically do not excel in other areas

[True or False]

Knowledge Base

Experts and Novices differ in their _____ and schema where they may solve problems especially well if they have had training in a variety of relevant settings and if the training includes immediate detailed feedback

Parallel Processing

It refers to handling 2 or more items at the same time

Serial Processing

It refers to handling one item at a time

Fixed Mindset

It refers to the belief that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills where no amount of effort can help you perform better

Growth Mindset

It refers to the belief that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills

Functional Fixedness

It is a cognitive bias or mental block that occurs when a person is unable to perceive an object or concept being used in a way other than its traditional or intended function.

Gender Stereotypes

These are beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males

Stereotype Threat

It is a psychological phenomenon in which individuals feel at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group, and this fear can negatively affect their performance or behavior.

Insight Problem

When solving a/n ______, which refers to problems that seem impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts then realize that your new solution is correct

Noninsight Problem

It refers to solving problem gradually by using memory, reasoning skills, routine set of strategies

Insight

The concept of ______ was very important to gestalt psychologists where they emphasizes organizational tendencies, especially in perception and problem solving

False

Behaviorists embraced the concept of insight while Gestalt Psychologists rejected it.

[True or False]

Insight Problem

When people work on ______, they experience a sudden leap in confidence when they are close to a correct solution

Top-Down Processing

______ will be especially useful when you approach a noninsight problem

True

Insight problem forces you to search for the answer “outside the box” by abandoning your customary top-down assumptions and looking for novel solutions

[True or False]

Creativity

Some psychologists argue that _____ is based on ordinary thinking — process similar to our everyday problem solving

Divergent Production

Guilford (1967) proposed that psychologists should measure creativity in terms of ______, which are number of different responses made to a test item

Convergent Production

It asks the test-takers to supply a single, best response which the researchers measure the quality of that response afterwards.

False

People tend to be more creative when they are daydreaming than when they are consciously focusing on a particular task.

[True or False]

Extrinsic Motivation

It refers to a motivation to work on a task in order to earn a promised reward or win a competition

Intrinsic Motivation

It refers to a motivation to work on a task for their own sake (internal)

Self-Efficacy

It is the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a specific task

Perseverance

It refers to the ability to keep working on a task even when you encounter obstacles.