The Islamic World #5

The Sanasid Empire

Iranian empire that succeeded the Parthians and rivaled the Roman (later Byzantine) Empire. Centered in Mesopotamia and Iran; strong ties between government and Zoroastrian religion.

- promoted trade along the Silk Road and pioneered new crops like sugarcane, rice, and citrus

- it's religious and political model — merging state and faith — influenced later Islamic rule.

Mecca

Caravan city in western Arabia, the birthplace of Muhammad. Home to the Ka'ba, a sacred shrine believed to have been built by Abraham and Ismael. Became Islam's holiest city and destination for pilgrimage (Hajj).

- prosperous trade hub controlled by the Quraysh tribe

Muslim

Means "one who submits" (to God's will). A follower of Islam who accepts Muhammad as the final prophet.

- practices include the Five Pillars of Islam: faith, prayer, zakat (donations), fasting, and pilgrimage (hajj).

Islam

Monotheistic religion revealed through Muhammad in the 7th century CE. Emphasizes submission (Islam) to the will of one God (Allah). Built on the Quran, Muhammad's teachings (Hadith), and the Five Pillars.

- spread rapidly across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond through trade and conquest

Medina

City in western Arabia where Muhammad and his followers migrated in 622 CE (Hijra). Became the first Islamic community (Ummah). Served as the political and spiritual center of early Islam.

Ummah

The global Muslim community bound by faith rather than tribe or ethnicity. Established by Prophet Muhammad in Medina to unite believers under Islam. Symbolized the ideal of a single, moral, and religious society.

Caliphate

The Islamic state ruled by a Caliph (successor to Muhammad). Combined political and religious leadership of the Muslim community. Early major caliphates included the Umayyad and Abbasid.

Quran

Islam's holy book, believed to be the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad. Compiled into written form around 650 CE. Guides faith, law, and daily life; written in Arabic.

- cannot/has not been altered in any way

Sunnis

Sunni Muslims are the largest branch of Islam. The word Sunni comes from Ahl al-Sunnah, meaning “People of the Tradition (Sunnah)”, referring to following the example of the Prophet Muhammad.

- believed leadership after Muhammad should go to the most qualified person, not necessarily only people from his family

- they supported Abu Bakr as the first Caliph

- Emphasis on:

- Following the Quran

- The Sunnah (teachings & practices of Muhammad)

- Consensus of the Muslim community and scholars (Ulama)

Shi'ites

Followers of Ali who are Shia's, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, who they believe was his rightful successor.

Believe leadership should stay within Muhammad's family (Imams descended from Ali).

- emphasize martyrdom (e.g., Husayn) and religious devotion

- minority branch of Islam compared to Sunnis

The Umayyad Caliphate

First hereditary dynasty of Islamic rulers; capital in Damascus. Expanded Islam across North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia. Focused more on Arab rule and empire than religion, leading to social tension.

- overthrown by the Abbasids due to resentment from non-Arab Muslims and Shi'ites

The Abbasid Caliphate

Overthrew the Umayyads; established capital at Baghdad. Known for a "Golden Age" of learning, art, science, and trade. Adopted Persian influences and expanded Islam's intellectual culture.

- declined due to political fragmentation and invasions (e.g., Turks, Mongols)

Mamluks

Slave soldiers who served Islamic rulers. Gained political power, eventually ruling Egypt and Syria.

- known for defeating the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260 CE)

- maintained Islamic culture and defended Muslim lands

Ghana

Early West African kingdom (6th-11th century CE) known as the "land of gold." Benefited from trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. Experienced peaceful, gradual conversion to Islam.

- served as a model for later Islamic states in West Africa

Ulama

Muslim scholars and religious authorities ("people with knowledge"). Interpreted the Quran, Hadith, and Sharia law. Played a major role in education, legal matters, and preserving Islamic unity after the caliphate's decline.

Hadith

Collections of sayings, actions, and teachings attributed to Muhammad. Second only to the Quran in guiding Islamic belief and law.

- used by scholars to interpret Sharia and model moral behavior

- carefully verified through chains of transmission (isnad)

Hubal

The chief god (of the Moon) of Pre-Islamic Mecca, represented by a statue inside the Ka'ba.

- the Quraysh tribe worshipped Hubal alongside 360 other idols before Islam

- Muhammad's monotheistic message directly opposed Hubal and the other idols

- when Islam began, Muhammad destroyed Hubal's statue, symbolizing the end of Arabian polytheism

Prophet Muhammad

Founder of Islam; regarded by Muslims as the last prophet/messenger of God (Allah). Received divine revelations from the angel Gabriel (Jibraeel) beginning in 610 CE, which became the Quran.

- born in Mecca, orphaned young, raised by uncle Abu Talib

- known for his honesty as a merchant

- faced persecution in Mecca, which led to migration to Medina in 622, the Hijra, the start of the Islamic calendar

- united Arabia under Islam before his death, was a spiritual & political leader

- had biological children only with Khadija

- full name: Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (Muhammad, son of Abdullah

Khadija

Muhammad's first wife and the first convert to Islam. She was Muhammad's first follower and moral support financially and emotionally during the early years of revelation, when Mecca elites rejected him.

- a wealthy widow who employed Muhammad and later married him

- seen as a model of faith and loyalty, respected among Muslim women as an example of strength & devotion

- the only wife of Muhammad's who had his biological children

Allah

The one and only god in Islam. Arabic word for "God". He is the creator of all things, all-powerful, merciful, and just.

- core of Islamic monotheism, rejecting all other gods & deities, including tribal gods like Hubal

Hijra

The migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina. Marked by the persecution in Mecca and an invitation from Medina's tribes to settle disputes and lead them. Marks Year 1 of the Islamic Calendar, and the starting month of the Islamic Year "Hijra".

- creation of the first Muslim community (ummah) under Islamic Law (sharia)

Sharia

The Islamic System of law and moral code, meaning "the path to follow". Regulates religious duties (prayer, fasting, charity) and civil life (marriage, business, justice). Serves as the foundation for governance and ethical conduct in Muslim societies.

Sources:

1). The Quran

2). The Hadith (sayings & actions of Muhammad)

3). Ijma (scholarly consensus)

4). Qiyas (analogical reasoning)

Abu Bakr

Prophet Muhammad's close companion and first Caliph (successor) after his death. Unified Arabia under Islam, preserved Muhammad's teachings, and oversaw the compilation of the Quran.

- set the precedent for leadership after Muhammad, beginning the Caliphate system

Caliph

From "khalifa", meaning successor. The political and religious leader of the Muslim community after Muhammad. Uphold and spread Islam, enforce Sharia (Islamic Law), and maintain the unity of the ummah.

- the first four are the Rightly Guided Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali

- central institution in Islamic governance; later divided into dynasties like the Umayyads & Abbasids

House of Wisdom

A major center of learning and translation in Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate. Founded by Caliph Al-Ma'mun. It translated and preserved works from Greek, Persian, and Indian scholars into Arabic, advancing science, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics.

- symbol of the Islamic Golden Age, when Baghdad was the world's leading hub of knowledge