history of our planet week 9 B

- Humans in the quaternary – origin of the species - Human dispersal – out of Africa - Homo sapiens dispersal – the first global human - Into the stone age(s). – on ele

Origin of the species:

• 1859: on the origin of species by means of natural selection

• 1871: the ascent of man and selection in relation to sex

•   “man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth”

•   i.e. humans must have evolved in the same way as other species

• - but lack of ‘intermediate’ species

• 1856: homo neanderthalensis remains found in Germany, diseased humans?

• The search for the missing link – ape and humans

• 1891: eugene dubois in java, homo erectus

• 1920s: further hominin remains found in Africa

•     ‘intermediate’ species found

Terminology:

• hominid (family: Hominidae) – the great apes – currently 8 living species

• hominin (tribe: hominini) – all members of homo genus (aka. Humans) and ancestors

humans in the quaternary:

•    homo sapiens last common ancestors

• australopithecine, 2-3 million years ago

• pan (chimps) – 4-13 million years ago, theory dependent

   Sahelanthropus tchadensis:

• Chimp/ human features

• Brain size comparable to chimp

• May have walked upright

  Australopithecus anamensis:

• Probably walked upright

• Teeth adapted to eating tough food

Australopithecus afarensis (lucy):

• Walked upright

• 1.2-1.4m tall

• Brain 35% size of homo sapiens

• No stone tools

Homo habilis:

•   First in homo genus

•    Brin 50% size homo sapiens

• Primitive stone tools

Homo ergaster:

•   Small face and teeth

• Brain 60% size of homo sapiens

• Advanced stone tools, handaxes

• First use of fire?

• Important place in homo genus family tree

Homo erectus:

•   Features and anatomy fairly similar to homo sapiens

• Brain 60-70%

• Successful, 2. 2million years

• First species ‘out of Africa’

•   Coexisted with homo sapiens

Out of africa:Homo heidelbergensis:

• Brains 88% size humans

• Used tools like h. erectus

• European h. heidelbergensis developed neanderthal-like features

•   African h. heidelbergensis evolved into homo sapiens?

Out of africa:Homo neanderthalensis:

• Stocky and cold adapted

• Used advanced tools

• Social structure and rudimentary language

• Slightly larger brain than homo sapiens?

• Dominated in Europe

Out of africa: Homo sapiens:

• cultural adaptability:

complex tools

proficiency in practical and social innovation

Hominin evolution, climate, and environment:

•   East Africa – centre for human evolution, 10-2 million years ago

• Tectonics have transformed region: flat, homogenous to varied, heterogeneous deserts to cloud forests

• ‘rifting’ (great rift valley) led to lake formation

• Link with hominin speciation, endephalisation, and dispersal

• Particularly at 1.8m – homo erectus

7-4 million years ago

2.8 mil years ago

2 mil years ago

1.8 mil years ago

Emergence of first homo, h.habilis

1.7 mil years ago

h. erectus first ‘out of africa’

1.4 mil years ago

h. erectus expands into mainland asia and indonesia

800,000 years ago

h. erecus expands into north africa, china and possibly eastern Europe

h. antecessor in western Europe?

(descended from h. ergaster?)

500,000 years ago

h. heidelbergensis ‘out of africa’ expands into north africa, china and possibly eastern Europe

overlap with h. erectus in asia

250,000 years ago

Period of transition

Emergence of h. neanderthalensis and h. sapiens from h. heidelbergensis in Europe and africa

130,000 years ago

 Three distinct species:

h. neanderthalensis

h. erectus

 e. sapiens

125,000 years ago

First h. sapiens out of africa?

Homo heidelbergensis:

• Brains 88% size humans

• Used tools like h. erectus

• European h. heidelbergensis developed neanderthal-like features

• African h. heidelbergensis evolved into homo sapiens?

Homo neanderthalensis:

• Stocky and cold adapted

• Used advanced tools

• Social structure and rudimentary language

• Slightly larger brain than homo sapiens?

• Dominated in Europe

Homo sapiens:

• cultural adaptability:

complex tools

proficiency in practical and social innovation

homo sapiens dispersal:

•   variety of theories

• early (120kyr): middle east,   southern asia, Australia

• Then (60kyr): Europe, Northern asia, Indonesia

Hominin evolution, climate and environment:

• Freshwater fluxes, ice sheet surges in north Atlantic (Heinrich events)

• Southerly migration of ITCZ over Africa

• Cooler but drier climate

• Changes in African vegetation cover, Sahel

•   North, east and west Africa uninhabitable

• Driver for homo sapiens ‘out of Africa’ dispersal?

• Carto et al (2009, j human evolution)

30,000 years ago:

• Approaching height of last glacial peiod (Devensian, MIS3)

• Homo erectus extinct

• Homo sapiens and h. neanderthalensis coexisting

20,000 years ago:

•   Last glacial maximum

•   H. neanderthalensis gone

• H. sapiens – nearly a global species

did h. neanderthalensis and h. sapiens coexist

In Europe, archaeological evidence shows h. neanderthalensis and h. sapiens coexisted for c. 5000 years

coexisting -              Competition

Neanderthals were more socially isolated, lived in smaller groups.

Division of labour (between men and women).

Running, warm climate animals

coexist -     Climate

•    H. neanderthalensis disappeared c. 40-24 ka

•   They and h. sapiens forced out of Europe during last glacial

•    H. neanderthalensis poorly adapted for warmer climate and fauna

• Outcompeted by h. sapiens – social groups, problem solving, division of labour

coexist - conflict

Archaeological evidence for inter-species aggression

coexist - Copulation

  Inter-breeding is possible between both species, and DNA evidence suggest that it occurred:

• Modern non-Africans possess c. 1-3% neanderthal DNA markers

• 20% of neanderthal DNA markers still represented in AMH (vernot and akey, 2014, science)

leaving Africa

• Several homo species left africa

• In Europe, h. neanderthalensis and h. sapiens

• In asia, h. erectus until c. 140,000 years ago

• H. sapiens only extant species left

Human evolution and race:

What race means in a scientific and social context is an ongoing process

Does race exist:

• All homo sapiens (humans) are genetically 99.9% identical (human genome research institute, US)

•   Scientifically, race doesn’t exist

• Race is a social construct which groups people based on skin colour, features (and cultural and religious differences)

•   Physical differences result from superficial phenotypic differences

Why does the concept of race exist:

• Ideas emerged in 16^th C to ‘make sense’ of physical differences

• Racialisation – categorisation of grops assigned characteristics, given value

• White Europeans became privileged through European thought, used to justify European colonialism after the medieval period

• Concept of race has been used to reinforce hierarchy, racism ever since

 

Human evolution and race:  Polygenism

Different human races have different taxonomic origins and significantly different genetic histories, has reinforced racial hierarchy, violence

Human evolution and race:  monogenism

All humans have almost identical genetic histories and have same taxonomic origins

Human evolution and race: 

• Physical differences (skin colour) are phenotypic responses to environmental factors (epidermal melanin)

•   No homogenous African race

•   More genetic diversity in Africa than all other continents combined

• Modern humans originated in Africa and lived there longest

• Rich genetic diversity

• Aricas linguistic diversity often used as a guide

 

Homo sapiens dispersal: the first global human:

•    by the LGM, humans were only ones left

• Spread across Africa, Europe, Asia and Australasia

Into the Americas:

• Expansion of homo sapiens into north America relatively late, c. 15 ka

•    Bering land bridge during glacial, low sea level. Now: Alaska-Russia (50 miles)

North Americas first people:

• At LGM, Laurentide and cordilleran ice sheets fused resulting in coast-to coast ice

•   Ice-free corridor route – original hypotheses.

• People migrated into central N America as cordilleran ice sheet melted

• Radiocarbon dating of first human archaeology in N America: 14,500 – 18,000 years ago

• Via pre-LGM ice free corridor – why not more archaeology?

• How accurate are the age estimates?

• Pacific coast route? Combination?

south Americas first people:

• Oldest archaeological remains c. 14,500-14,250 years old. Monte Verde, southern Chile

• well before cordilleran ice sheet retreat at end of last ice age

• Speed: oldest archaeology comparable with north America

• Majority of early archaeology is along west coast

• Peopling of the Americas: support pacific coast route hypothesis

• Or across pacific ocean?

Peopling of the pacific:

•    Lower sea level during LGM

• Estimates for first autralians arrival between 40,000 – 80,000 years ago

• Growing evidence for early arrival

• Archaeological evidence, but radiocarbon dated to c. 60,000 years

• Other evidence:

-Changing fire regimes (70-1000ka)

Human genome (over 60ka)

Mass megafauna extinction event (c. 46ka)

• On through pacific island – to south America?

Was bigfoot real?

• Folk stories exist across world about large ape-like creatures (bigfoot, sasquatch, yeti)

• Gigantopithicus blacki, 3.5m tall

• Went extinct 300,000 years ago

• Ponginae tribe (one survivor, orangutan) – the Eurasian apes

Humans in the late quaternary:

•   Assumption that homo sapiens was only homo species to survive last glacial continues to be challenged

• New archaeological finds and DNA analysis also hint at increased complexity in the evolution of our species

• Morwood et al (2004, nature) – discovery of a new hominin species

• Flores island, southern Indonesia

•    Liang bua, limestone cave

• Remains of 9 individuals and 1 complete skull

• Anatomically distinct from h. erectus and h. sapiens

• Named homo florensiensis

• C. 110cm tall, 3ft 7in

•   Nicknamed the hobbit

human evidence

• Originally radiocarbon (14^C) dated to c. 12,000 years ago

•   Longest surviving non-h. sapiens hominin?

• Revised stratigraphy of the cave and additional dating suggested 50,000 years old more likely

• Native folk tale – ebu gogo

•   Suggestions of dwarfism, downs syndrome

human evidence 2010

• Denisovan hominin, currently unclassified

• Dates to 41,000 years ago but genetically distinct from AMH, neanderthals

• Common ancestor with neanderthals, but interbred with amh?

• 3-5% of Melanesian and Australian Aboriginal DNA shared with Denisovans

human evidence 2

• Progress in our understanding sometimes doesn’t involve archaeology

•   DNA analysis of human genomes reveals hidden surprises

•     Some west African populations share up to 20% DNA markers with unknown ancient human

• Archaeological remains yet to be discovered

•    ‘absence of evidence is not evidence of absence’

 the stone age:

the palaeolithic:

• The stone age

• Palaeolithic – old stone age

• Mesolithic – middle stones age

• Neolithic – new stone age

• Defined by use of stone tools

• Growing levels of societal and technological complexity

• lower palaeolithic – pre-h. sapiens, h. habilis onwards

• Middle palaeolithic – h. sapiens and others

The first Britons:

•   2013: earliest evidence of hominins discovered in British isles

• Footprint discovered following storm in habbisburgh, norfolk

• Dated to 900,000 years ago (990,000 – 780,000 years ago)

• Oldest footprints outside africa

• Previously stone tools found in cliff deposits nearby, by dog walkers, then thought to be oldest evidence (c. 700,000 years)

• No hominin remains but probably homo antecessor

The palaeolithic:

• Prior to happisburgh footprints:

•   2005: earliest evidence of uk hominins, Pakefield , Suffolk

• Flint percussion flakes associated with handaxe industries identified from interglacial river terraces

• Dated to 700,000 years ago, MIS 17 with cromerian complex

• Associated mediterranean species, and old water vole – mimomys Savini

• Earliest evidence of humans north of alps

The palaeolithic:-    Prior to Pakefield flints:

•    1982-1996: excavation at sand/ gravel quarry, boxgrove, west Sussex

• Hundreds of handaxes, percussion, flints and megafauna

• C. 500,000 years ago, MIS 13 (cromerian complex)

• Cut marks on bones (e.g. fallow deer) found, indicating butchery

• H. heidelbergensis tibia – oldest hominin remains in British isles

Other important finds:

• Swanscombe woman, Dartford, Kent

400,000 years old

Homo erectus?

Discovered by Alvin Marston, local dentist, 1935

•   Kent’s cavern ‘neanderthal’ devon

42,000 years old

Discovered 1927

Possibly h. sapiens? Oldest in N. Europe

   A cultural revolution – evidence from Swabian Alb region, Germany

• 1939: ion man of hohlenstein stadel

  First anthropomorphic animal carving, male

  32,000 years old, 11 inches high, Carved using flint tools

• 2008: Venus of Hohle fels – mammoth ivory

   First undisputed human depiction

35,000-40,000 years old

• 2008: hohle fels flute:

  Vultures wing, mute swan bone, mammoth ivory

Radiocarbon dated to 41,000-42,000 years old

Pentatonic scale – developed musical tradition existed amongst first AMH in Europe – can still be played

First Britons: Middle palaeolithic:

•   Kent’s cavern, 42,000 years old

First Britons:   Upper palaeolithic:

•    30,000 – 10,500 years ago

• Humans absent in British isles during last glacial maximum

First Britons:    Goughs cave, nr. Cheddar gorge, somerset

•   Evidence of recolonisation of Britain after c. 14,700 years ago (14^C)

• Persisted through bolling-allerod interstadial to start of younger dryas

• Evidence of hunter-gatherers

• Abundant remains elk, aurochs, wild horse

• Cheddar gorge, ideal hunting ground

First Britons:   Evidence of cannibalism:

• Human forearm bone, engraved with zigzags and broken open for marrow extraction

• Human bones with human teeth marks

•    Skulls show evidence of careful preparation to form skull cups

• Suggests careful filleting of human bodies, with engraving

• Cannibalism went beyond just survival – ritual?

First Britons: Cheddar man – oldest complete AMH skeleton

• Found on Goughs cave, but more recent cannibalistic evidence, c. 10,000 years old

•   Assumption that early british AMH were white proved wrong by recent DNA analysis

• Likely dark to black skin, blue eyes

•   Light skin gene in AMH likely spread in europe much later than previously thought

The palaeolithic:

• First evidence of construction and settlement – 12,000 -10,000 years ago

• Anatolia/ Mesopotamia/ levant

• Future cradle of civilisation

• Ritual sites?

Humans in the quaternary – story so far:

• Potentially multiple co-existing homo species with AMH

• Britain inhabited throughout late quaternary

•   Earliest evidene c. 900,000 years ago from Happisburgh

• Occupation ebb and flow with glacial-interglacial cycle

• Palaeolithic dominated by stone tool technology, but art and music

•   Human evolution over last 10 million years

•   Emergence of homo genus in quaternary-

•   Global expansion of homo sapiens

•   Technological and cultural advances through the palaeolithic in the Mesolithic

The mesolithic:

• After end of last ice age

•   Mesolithic – 10,500 – 6000 years ago – timings of period debated

• Characterised by dramatic technological advancement

• Significant advances in stone industry

•   Microlithic flaked tools and blades

The mesolithic:-  Other preserved artefacts:

  Nets, baskets, creels, boast, paddles, sleds

The Mesolithic subsistence:

• Hunting and gathering

•    Wide diet breadth with seasonal specialisation

•   Isotopic studies (teeth) demonstrates marine and terrestrial mammal consumption, fishing and shellfish

• Still largely nomadic (apart from in the ‘cradle of civilisation’