Science of Human Development and Prenatal Development Vocabulary

Vocabulary key terms and definitions derived from the Human Development lecture notes, covering lifespan perspectives, ecological systems, theoretical frameworks, research methodology, genetics, and prenatal development.

Human development

Seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

Lifespan perspective

Examines patterns of change involving growth and decline from conception to death.

Critical period

A period in which development has to happen now, or else it won’t ever happen.

Sensitive period

A period when it is easiest if development happens now, but can happen later with more concentration.

Microsystem

Immediate environments that a child directly interacts with daily, such as family, school, peer group, and playground.

Mesosystem

Connections and relationships between different microsystems, such as parent-teacher conferences.

Exosystem

External settings that the child does not directly interact with, but still indirectly impact their development, such as a parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The overarching cultural, societal, and subcultural context in which all other systems are embedded, including cultural values, national laws, and political systems.

Chronosystem

Connections between systems across time, including major historical shifts, economic recessions, or family events like divorce.

Culture

A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and guide behaviors and assumptions.

Difference-equals-deficit error

The mistaken belief that deviation from the same norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard.

Ethnic group

People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share language, culture, and religion.

Race

A group of people who are seen by themselves or others as distinct from others by physical appearance.

Biosocial domain

A domain of human development encompassing changes in height/weight, sensory capabilities, nervous system, and propensity for disease/illness.

Cognitive domain

A domain of human development encompassing changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem solving, memory, and language.

Psychosocial domain

A domain of human development encompassing changes in emotion, self-perception, and relationships with family, peers, and friends.

Plasticity

The capacity for human traits to be molded, while individuals maintain a certain durability of identity.

Dynamic-systems approach

An approach that urges consideration of all interrelated aspects and every social and cultural factor over days and years.

Scientific method

A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.

Scientific observation

A method that requires a researcher to record behavior systematically and objectively.

Quantitative research

Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers like ranks or scales.

Qualitative research

Research that considers qualities instead of quantities, often including descriptions of conditions and participants' expressed ideas.

Cross-sectional research

A research design that compares groups of people of one age with people of another age.

Longitudinal research

A research design where data is collected repeatedly on the same individuals as they age.

Cross-sequential research

A research design studying several groups of people of different ages and following them over years.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An entity that ensures research follows established guidelines and remains ethical.

Theory

A framework for understanding the relations among a set of observed facts, functioning to explain and predict behavior.

Psychodynamic theories

Theories proposing that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach focused on observable behaviors that rejects explanations referencing thought.

Conditioning theory

Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli.

Learning theory

Focuses on observable behavior and describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

Classical conditioning

Also known as respondent conditioning, a process where behaviors are learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Genome

The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.

Genotype

An organism’s genetic inheritance or genetic potential.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

The molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.

Chromosomes

Molecules of DNA.

Allele

A variation of a gene or any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.

Polygenic

Refers to a trait that is influenced by many genes.

Multifactorial

Refers to a trait affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that alter the expression of genes.

Homozygous

Having inherited the same version of a gene from both parents.

Heterozygous

Having inherited a different version of a gene from each parent.

Dominant genes

Genes that express themselves in the phenotype even when paired with a different version of the gene.

Recessive genes

Genes that express themselves in the phenotype only when paired with a similar version gene.

Passive genotype-environment correlation

Occurs when a child inherits genetic potential from parents but is not actively seeking out an environment to boost that potential.

Active genotype-environment correlation

Occurs when an individual or parents actively seek out an environment to boost inherited genetic potential.

Evocative genotype-environment correlation

Refers to how an individual's genetic potential influences how their environment interacts with them.

Differential susceptibility

The phenomenon where sensitivity to any particular experience differs from one person to another because of inherited genes or past events.

Epigenetics

Focuses on how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression, enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering gene expression.

Heritability

A statistic indicating how much of the variation in a trait within a population, context, and era can be traced to genes.

Carrier

A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype.

Down syndrome

Also called trisomy-21, a condition occurring when a person has three copies of chromosome 21.

Germinal period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by the zygote, placenta development, and implantation.

Embryonic period

The period of prenatal development from the 3rd through 8th week during which organs and major structures form.

Fetal period

The period of prenatal development from the 9th week until birth.

Teratogens

Environmental factors that can contribute to increased risk for birth defects or complications at birth.

Prenatal teratogens

Any agent or condition, including viruses and drugs, resulting in birth defects or complications.

Behavioral teratogens

Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child’s intellectual and emotional functioning.

Threshold effect

A phenomenon where certain teratogens are relatively harmless until exposure reaches a certain level.

Gestational diabetes

A condition during pregnancy that, if untreated, increases risks of jaundice, stillbirth, premature birth, and low blood sugar for the baby.

Gestational hypertension

High blood pressure experienced only during pregnancy, which increases the risk for placenta rupture and premature birth.