Block 2: Intelligence

Who developed phrenology and when?

Franz Gall, with Spurzheim and later Combe, in the 19th century.

(Citation) Who are key figures associated with phrenology?

What type of theory is phrenology?

A pseudoscientific theory, not based on empirical experimentation.

What method did phrenologists use?

Observational correlation — examining skull bumps and linking them to psychological traits.

What field does phrenology belong to?

Early biological psychology / neuroanatomy.

What were the three main claims of phrenology?

The brain is the organ of the mind.

Mental functions are localized in specific brain areas.

The size of brain areas (reflected in skull shape) indicates trait strength.

What was phrenology's motivation?

To create a biological basis for behavior and personality during psychology's shift from philosophy/theology.

Name two strengths of phrenology.

Promoted biological explanations for behavior.

Popularized brain localization and public interest in psychology.

What were phrenology's contributions to modern neuroscience?

Introduced localization of function.

Inspired interest in measuring traits (e.g., psychometrics).

Laid groundwork for empirical studies of behavior.

Name one empirical challenge to phrenology.

Alice Lee (1890s) showed no correlation between skull size and intelligence using statistics.

Name three key criticisms of phrenology.

Lacked scientific method and falsifiability.

Used to justify racism and classism.

Arbitrary and unsupported anatomical mappings.

How did phrenology impact social thought?

It supported harmful ideologies (e.g., eugenics) and discriminatory practices by misusing science for example they thought men were more capable due to their bigger heads

Who was Francis Galton and what was his main contribution?

cousin of Darwin, founded psychometrics and pioneered statistical methods in psychology. (Galton, 1822-1911)

What type of research did Galton conduct?

Empirical, correlational, and theoretical — including biometric measurements, observational studies, and the first use of questionnaires in psychology.

What motivated Galton's research on intelligence?

Influenced by Darwin, Galton sought to quantify inherited mental and physical traits and believed intelligence was largely genetic.

What is Hereditary Genius (1869) about?

Galton studied eminent men and concluded that intelligence is inherited rather than shaped by environment.

What was the purpose of Galton's Anthropometric Lab (1884)?

Collected biometric data from 9,000 people to find physical correlates of intelligence — ultimately unsuccessful.

What is the significance of English Men of Science (1874)?

First major use of psychological questionnaires; found nature more influential than nurture in scientific success.

How did Galton contribute to twin studies?

He was the first to propose twin studies to separate hereditary from environmental influences.

What did Galton conclude in his "Efficacy of Prayer" study?

Found no measurable effects of prayer, applying empirical methods to a religious question.

What were Galton's main scientific contributions?

Founded psychometrics.

Developed correlation, regression to the mean, and normal distribution.

Pioneered data collection and use of questionnaires.

Introduced twin study methodology.

What were some of Galton's measurement errors?

Incorrectly assumed intelligence could be measured via head size and sensory ability.

Why is Galton's work considered ethically problematic?

Founded eugenics, which promoted selective breeding.

His ideas were later used to justify racism, classism, and ableism.

Reflected Victorian biases, including sexism and racism.

What is Galton's overall legacy in psychology?

A dual legacy: foundational in scientific method and statistical tools, yet ethically flawed due to his advocacy of eugenics and biased assumptions.

Who was Charles Spearman and what did he propose?

introduced the concept of general intelligence ("g") and the Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence in 1904. (Spearman, 1904)

What type of study did Spearman conduct?

Theoretical and statistical; he pioneered factor analysis to analyze correlations in cognitive performance.

What motivated Spearman's theory of intelligence?

He noticed that people who performed well in one cognitive area often performed well in others, leading him to propose a general cognitive ability ("g").

What are the components of Spearman's Two-Factor Theory?

"g": General intelligence common to all tasks.

"s": Specific abilities unique to individual tasks (e.g., math, verbal reasoning).

What method did Spearman use to identify "g"?

Factor analysis of student test scores across subjects.

What strengths did Spearman's theory have?

Introduced factor analysis to psychology.

Provided a simple model for intelligence structure.

Influenced the design of modern IQ tests.

What are some weaknesses of Spearman's theory?

Oversimplified intelligence—ignored creativity, emotional and multiple intelligences.

Neglected environmental and cultural influences.

Vague neurological or developmental basis for "g".

How did Spearman influence later psychologists?

Inspired Cattell's fluid/crystallized intelligence and Wechsler's intelligence scales (e.g., WAIS).

What is "g" in Spearman's theory?

A general intelligence factor shared across all cognitive abilities.

What is "s" in Spearman's theory?

Task-specific abilities or skills unique to particular domains.

Why is Spearman important in psychometrics?

He introduced factor analysis, which remains a key method in psychological test development and validation.

Who was Alfred Binet and what is he known for?

A French psychologist who co-developed the first practical intelligence test in 1905 with Théodore Simon. (Binet & Simon, 1905)

What was the purpose of the Binet-Simon test?

To identify children needing educational support—not to measure fixed or innate intelligence.

What type of research did Binet conduct?

Applied, empirical psychometric research focused on child development and education.

What key concept did the Binet-Simon Test introduce?

Mental Age (MA)—the intellectual performance level typical of a specific age group.

How is IQ calculated based on Binet's work?

IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100(Note: Formula later formalized by Wilhelm Stern, 1912)

What was the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale?

A 1916 revision by Lewis Terman that introduced IQ scoring, norms, and broader application in schools and the military.

What was Binet's stance on intelligence?

He believed intelligence was malleable and warned against deterministic or fixed interpretations.

What are two major strengths of Binet's work?

Created the foundation for modern IQ testing.

Promoted supportive, diagnostic use of testing in education.

What were some weaknesses or issues with Binet's test?

MA/CA ratio is invalid for adults.

Later misuse supported eugenics.

Cultural bias favored privileged children.

Later revisions contradicted Binet's original intentions.

Who misused Binet's work and how?

Henry Goddard promoted it in the U.S. for eugenics; Lewis Terman popularized fixed-IQ views Binet had opposed.

How did Binet contribute to psychology?

Pioneered psychometric and child assessment methods.

Influenced Spearman, Wechsler, and educational psychology.

Introduced standardized, age-based cognitive testing.

What was Thurstone's main argument about intelligence?

Intelligence is composed of multiple independent abilities, not a single "g" factor (Thurstone, 1938).

What method did Thurstone use in his research?

Factor analysis of intelligence test data to identify distinct cognitive factors.

What are Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs)?

Verbal comprehension

Numerical ability

Memory

Inductive reasoning

Perceptual speed

Verbal fluency

Spatial visualization

Strengths of Thurstone's theory?

Broadened the concept of intelligence

Laid groundwork for multifactor models

Weaknesses of Thurstone's theory?

PMAs still correlate → some support for "g"

Limited clinical adoption

Thurstone contribution to psychology?

Validated multifactor models

Advanced the use of factor analysis in psychometrics

What did Gardner propose in Frames of Mind (1983)?

Intelligence is plural—different people excel in different, culturally valued domains.

What type of model is Gardner's theory?

Theoretical and conceptual; based on case studies and educational insights.

What are Gardner's intelligences?

8 Factors Linguistic

Logical-mathematical

Musical

Bodily-kinesthetic

Spatial

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Naturalistic

Strengths of Gardner's theory?

Encouraged educational inclusivity

Recognized diverse talents and contexts

Weaknesses of Gardner's theory?

Limited empirical support for distinct intelligences

Often conflated with debunked learning styles

Gardner's contribution to psychology?

Broadened educational approaches

Emphasized cultural/contextual understanding of intelligence

What is Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

Intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical components (Sternberg, 1985).

hat is analytical intelligence?

Academic problem-solving and test performance (traditional IQ).

What is creative intelligence?

Innovation, flexibility, and solving novel problems.

What is practical intelligence?

Real-world adaptability, social competence, and "street smarts.

Strengths of Sternberg's theory?

Addresses everyday intelligence

Bridges academic and applied thinking

Weaknesses of Sternberg's theory?

Difficult to measure reliably

Less empirical support compared to IQ tests

Sternberg's contribution to psychology?

Promoted real-world intelligence in testing

Influenced educational and workplace assessments

What is the major debate in intelligence theory today?

Whether intelligence is singular (Spearman's "g") or multidimensional (Thurstone, Gardner, Sternberg).

What was phrenology, and who promoted it?

A pseudoscience claiming skull shape reflects personality/intelligence; promoted by Gall & Spurzheim. Popularized localization of mental functions.

What were the WWI Army Alpha & Beta Tests (1917)?

Designed by Robert Yerkes

Used to assign military roles

Biased against non-English speakers

Supported immigration restriction and racial stereotypes

What was the purpose of the UK's 11+ Exam (1944)?

Streamed students into tripartite system of secondary schools

Based on IQ

Reinforced class and educational inequality

What was the Cyril Burt controversy?

Twin studies used to support hereditary intelligence

Accused of fabricating data in the 1970s

Cast doubt on claims of high heritability

What is the Flynn Effect?

Discovered in the 1980s

IQ scores rose globally over time

Implies intelligence is influenced by environment, not fixed

What is L.L. Thurstone's theory of intelligence?

Rejected Spearman's "g"

Proposed Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs) like verbal, numerical, and spatial skills

Intelligence is multi-factorial, not unitary

What is Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory (1983)?

Identified 8+ independent intelligences (e.g., linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal)

Emphasized cultural context and diverse talents

Criticized for lacking empirical support but influential in education

What are the three components of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (1985)?

Analytical intelligence - traditional problem-solving

Creative intelligence - innovation and adaptability

Practical intelligence - real-world, everyday skills

Focused on how people adapt to environments

How is intelligence viewed today?

Considered multi-dimensional

Applied in education, cognitive assessments, neuropsychology

Increased focus on cultural sensitivity and test bias

Debates continue: Nature vs. Nurture and g vs. multiple intelligences

What was the purpose of the Stanford-Binet test, and what was a major ethical issue?

Purpose: Educational placement

Ethical Issue: Culturally biased and misused to argue intelligence was innate, justifying social hierarchies

What were the WWI Alpha and Beta Tests, and why were they controversial?

Purpose: Assigning military roles (Yerkes, 1917)

Ethical Issue: Disadvantaged non-English speakers, used to limit immigration and reinforce racial bias

How were intelligence tests linked to the eugenics movement?

Psychologists like Goddard and Terman promoted the idea that IQ was heritable

Terman (1916): Advocated restricting reproduction of those deemed "feeble-minded"

Fueled eugenic policies

Who developed the Wechsler Scales and why?

Developed by David Wechsler (1939), the Wechsler scales were introduced as an alternative to the Stanford-Binet.

Wechsler criticized the Mental Age model as unsuitable for adults and instead introduced Deviation IQ, based on standard scores relative to the population average (Wechsler, 1944).

What major concept did Wechsler introduce to replace "mental age"?

Deviation IQ

Mean = 100, Standard Deviation = 15

IQ reflects how far an individual's score deviates from the population average

What tests are part of the Wechsler Scales?

WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

WISC - Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Subtests assess verbal comprehension, working memory, processing speed, and perceptual reasoning

What are the strengths of the Wechsler Scales?

Applicable across age groups

Multidimensional assessment

High reliability and validity

Widely used in clinical, educational, and research settings

What are criticisms or weaknesses of the Wechsler tests?

Still culturally biased

Assumes intelligence is stable across time and contexts

Risk of misuse in educational or diagnostic stratification

What is the Wechsler Scales' contribution to psychology?

Replaced mental age with norm-based scoring

Introduced verbal vs. performance IQ

Remains a leading tool in intelligence testing

Encouraged individualized interventions in education and healthcare