1960s/JFK Vocab

New Frontier

President John F. Kennedy’s domestic policy agenda aimed at addressing economic inequality, civil rights, space exploration, healthcare, education and technological innovation. Though some initiatives, such as increased funding for NASA and the Peace Corps, were successful, many of his proposals, including health care and education reforms, were blocked by Congress.

Bay of Pigs Invasion

(1961) A failed CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba by 1,400 Cuban exiles aiming to overthrow the communist leader Fidel Castro. Poor planning and lack of U.S. air support led to a disastrous defeat, strengthening Castro’s ties with the Soviet Union and embarrassing the Kennedy administration.

Cuban Missile Crisis

(1962) A 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear missiles installed in Cuba, just 90 miles from Florida. After intense negotiations, the crisis was resolved when the USSR agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for the U.S. pledging not to invade Cuba and secretly withdrawing Jupiter missiles from Turkey. The event marked the closest the world came to nuclear war during the Cold War.

U-2 Spy Plane Incident

(1960) The downing of a U.S. U-2 reconnaissance plane over Soviet territory, leading to the capture of pilot Francis Gary Powers. The incident heightened Cold War tensions and led Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev to walk out of a summit meeting with President Eisenhower, worsening U.S.-Soviet relations just before JFK took office.

Space Race Under JFK

An intense competition between the U.S. and USSR for dominance in space exploration. In response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik (1957) and Yuri Gagarin’s 1961 spaceflight, JFK vowed in a 1961 speech to put an American on the Moon by the end of the decade, leading to increased funding for NASA and the Apollo program.

Berlin Wall

A concrete barrier built by the Soviet-backed East German government to stop East Germans from fleeing to West Berlin. The wall became a powerful symbol of the Cold War, dividing the city for nearly three decades until its fall in 1989.

Alliance for Progress

A U.S. foreign aid program under JFK that provided $20 billion to Latin American countries to promote economic development, land reform, and education, aimed at preventing the spread of communism. However, it had limited success due to corruption and resistance from Latin American elites.

Peace Corps

A volunteer program created by JFK where young Americans were sent to developing nations, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, to assist in education, healthcare, and agriculture, as a way to promote goodwill and counter communist influence.

Flexible Response

JFK’s military strategy that moved away from the “Massive Retaliation” policy of Eisenhower, instead allowing for a variety of military responses to crises, including conventional forces, counterinsurgency troops (Green Berets), and nuclear weapons. This approach aimed to better address conflicts like Vietnam.

Test Ban Treaty

A treaty signed by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, which banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, though underground tests were still allowed. It marked a step toward arms control during the Cold War.

Freedom Rides

Civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated South to test Supreme Court rulings that banned segregation in public transportation. The rides were met with violent resistance, particularly in Alabama, drawing national attention to the need for stronger civil rights enforcement.

War on Poverty

President Lyndon B. Johnson’s initiative to combat poverty and inequality in the U.S. as part of his Great Society programs. It included programs like Head Start (early childhood education), Job Corps (vocational training), and food stamps.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A landmark piece of civil rights legislation that outlawed segregation in public places, banned employment discrimination based on race, sex, religion, or national origin, and strengthened federal enforcement of civil rights laws. It was signed by LBJ after JFK’s assassination and faced heavy resistance from Southern politicians.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation that eliminated literacy tests and other discriminatory barriers to African American voting in the South. It empowered the federal government to oversee voter registration and led to a dramatic increase in Black voter participation.

Assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem

The U.S.-backed coup that led to the overthrow and assassination of South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem, a Catholic leader ruling a majority-Buddhist country, had lost support due to oppressive policies and crackdowns on Buddhist protests. His death created political instability in South Vietnam, escalating U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

Assassination of JFK

President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald. His death shocked the nation, leading to conspiracy theories and the Warren Commission investigation. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president hours later

Rise of LBJ into the Presidency

Following JFK’s assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson became president and used his political expertise and legislative skills to push forward civil rights laws and social programs, capitalizing on the national grief over JFK’s death.

LBJ’s “Treatment”

Johnson’s forceful and intimidating persuasion tactics used to pressure politicians into supporting his legislative agenda. He used personal charm, physical intimidation, and relentless persuasion to pass landmark legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Great Society programs

The Great Society

LBJ’s ambitious domestic reform agenda that sought to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. Focused on education health care, urban development, and civil rights. It included programs like Medicare, Medicaid, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Head Start, Economic Opportunity Act, & Civil Rights Act/Voting Rights Act.

Medicare/Medicaid

Two Great Society programs that expanded healthcare coverage. Medicare provided healthcare for seniors (65+), while Medicaid provided healthcare for low-income individuals. These programs significantly reduced the number of uninsured Americans.

Tet Offensive

A major, coordinated attack by the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and Viet Cong on U.S. and South Vietnamese forces during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year. Though the U.S. and South Vietnam repelled the attacks, the offensive shocked the American public, showing that the U.S. was not as close to victory as the government had claimed. It eroded public support for the Vietnam War and contributed to LBJ’s decision not to seek reelection.

JFK’s Promise Speech

A speech by John F. Kennedy before Congress in which he committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s. This promise led to increased NASA funding and ultimately resulted in the Apollo 11 mission.

Ngo Dinh Diem

Catholic, anti-communist leader of South Vietnam, backed by the United States. His oppressive policies against Buddhists and failure to gain popular support led to his assassination in a U.S.-backed coup in 1963, increasing instability in Vietnam.

Lyndon B. Johnson

The 36th U.S. president (1963-1969) who assumed office after JFK’s assassination. Known for his Great Society programs and War on Poverty, he also escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam, leading to anti-war protests and his decision not to seek reelection in 1968.

Viet Cong

The communist guerrilla force in South Vietnam, allied with North Vietnam and the NVA (North Vietnamese Army). They used guerrilla warfare tactics and were instrumental in attacks like the Tet Offensive.

Communist Block

The group of nations aligned with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, including Eastern European nations (such as Poland, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia) and communist allies like China, North Korea, and North Vietnam.

North Vietnamese Army

The official military of communist North Vietnam, fighting alongside the Viet Cong against South Vietnam and the U.S. They were heavily supplied by the USSR and China.

Berlin Crisis

A Cold War confrontation where the Soviet Union demanded the U.S. and its allies withdraw from West Berlin. JFK responded by increasing U.S. military presence. The crisis led to the construction of the Berlin Wall, symbolizing Cold War tensions.

Fidel Castro

The communist revolutionary leader of Cuba, who overthrew Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Under his rule, Cuba became a Soviet ally, leading to conflicts such as the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).

Satellite Nations

Eastern European nations that were under Soviet control or influence after World War II, including Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria. These nations formed the Eastern Bloc and were dominated by communist governments.

Geneva Accords

The agreement that ended the French Indochina War, dividing Vietnam at the 17th parallel into North Vietnam (communist) and South Vietnam (anti-communist). Elections were supposed to unify Vietnam, but they never occurred, leading to the Vietnam War.

Fall of Saigon

The collapse of South Vietnam when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon, marking the end of the Vietnam War. U.S. personnel and South Vietnamese allies were evacuated in a chaotic final withdrawal

Gulf of Tonkin Incident

A controversial event where the USS Maddox and USS C. Turner Joy reportedly came under attack by North Vietnamese boats. This incident led to increased U.S. military involvement in Vietnam

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Passed by Congress after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, it gave President LBJ the authority to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war. This significantly escalated U.S. involvement.

Operation Rolling Thunder

A sustained bombing campaign by the U.S. Air Force against North Vietnam, aimed at weakening the communist war effort. It failed to force North Vietnam to surrender and contributed to anti-war sentiment in the U.S.

French Indochina War

A conflict between France and the communist-led Viet Minh (led by Ho Chi Minh) over control of Vietnam. The Viet Minh’s victory at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 led to French withdrawal and the division of Vietnam.

French Colony

Before Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia became independent nations, they were part of French Indochina, a colony controlled by France from the 19th century until 1954. The Viet Minh fought against French rule, leading to the First Indochina War.

My Lai Massacre

A mass killing of hundreds of unarmed South Vietnamese civilians by U.S. troops in the village of My Lai. The massacre, when exposed in 1969, caused international outrage and damaged U.S. credibility in the wa

Paris Peace Accords

The peace agreement signed between the U.S., South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong, leading to the withdrawal of U.S. troops and a temporary ceasefire. However, fighting resumed, leading to the Fall of Saigon in 1975

Military Advisors

Before full-scale U.S. involvement, the U.S. these people to train and assist South Vietnamese forces in their fight against the Viet Cong and North Vietnam. These advisors played a key role in escalating U.S. intervention in Vietnam

USS Maddox & USS C. Turner Joy

Two U.S. Navy ships involved in the Gulf of Tonkin Incident (1964). Reports of attacks on these ships (later disputed) were used as justification for the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which escalated U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War

Khmer Rouge

A brutal communist regime led by Pol Pot that took over Cambodia in 1975. They launched the Cambodian Genocide, killing around 2 million people in an attempt to create an agrarian utopia. Were later overthrown by Vietnamese forces in 1979

Vietnamization

A strategy implemented by President Richard Nixon during the Vietnam War, aimed at gradually reducing U.S. troop involvement while increasing the combat role of South Vietnamese forces. The goal was to transfer military responsibility to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) so that U.S. forces could withdraw. However, the policy ultimately failed when South Vietnam fell to North Vietnam in 1975.

Invasion/Bombing of Cambodia

In an effort to destroy Viet Cong and North Vietnamese supply routes (Ho Chi Minh Trail), Nixon authorized the secret bombing and invasion of Cambodia. The expansion of the war sparked massive protests in the U.S., most notably the Kent State Massacre, where National Guard troops killed four students protesting the war. The bombing campaign further destabilized Cambodia, contributing to the rise of the Khmer Rouge.

17th Parallel

The temporary dividing line between North and South Vietnam established by the Geneva Accords of 1954. North Vietnam was led by communist Ho Chi Minh, while South Vietnam was led by anti-communist Ngo Dinh Diem

Domino Theory

A Cold War foreign policy belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like dominoes. This theory was used to justify U.S. involvement in Vietnam, Korea, and other Cold War conflicts, as the U.S. feared that communist expansion in Southeast Asia would spread to nations like Thailand, Laos, and Indonesia.

James Meredith

A civil rights activist and the first African American student to integrate the University of Mississippi ("Ole Miss"). His enrollment in 1962 was met with violent riots, requiring federal intervention. President John F. Kennedy sent U.S. Marshals and federal troops to protect Meredith and enforce desegregation. His admission was a major victory for the civil rights movement and the enforcement of Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Castro’s Takeover

In 1959, Fidel Castro led a successful revolution that overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. Castro soon established a communist regime, nationalized American-owned businesses, and aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union. His rise alarmed the United States and increased Cold War tensions in the Western Hemisphere.

Division of Vietnam

After the Geneva Accords, Vietnam was split into:

• North Vietnam: Communist, led by Ho Chi Minh

• South Vietnam: Anti-communist, backed by the U.S.

Ho Chi Minh

Communist revolutionary leader of North Vietnam, fighting against French colonial rule and later against U.S.-backed South Vietnam

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

A major battle in which Vietnamese communist forces under Ho Chi Minh defeated the French military. The defeat marked the end of French colonial rule in Indochina and led directly to the Geneva Accords.

Domino Theory

A Cold War belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also fall like a row of dominoes. This theory was used to justify U.S. intervention in Vietnam and other regions during the Cold War.

Head Start

A federal program launched in 1965 as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society initiatives and the War on Poverty. Provides early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The goal was to help disadvantaged children be better prepared for school and to break the cycle of poverty through early intervention.

Nixon Doctrine

A foreign policy strategy announced by President Richard Nixon, stating that the United States would honor existing defense commitments, but in the future, countries would have to fight their own wars without large numbers of American troops. Marked a shift in U.S. Cold War policy, especially in Southeast Asia, reflecting the Vietnamization strategy

William Calley

A U.S. Army lieutenant found guilty of murder for his role in commanding troops during the My Lai Massacre (1968), in which hundreds of Vietnamese civilians were killed.