Introduction to Psychology: Foundations, History, Approaches, and Specializations

Flashcards covering key concepts from introductory psychology, including definitions, scientific attitudes, historical perspectives, contemporary theoretical approaches, and major areas of specialization.

How is psychology formally defined?

Psychology is formally defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What are the four primary goals of psychological science?

The four primary goals are to describe, predict, explain, and control or change behavior.

How do psychologists distinguish between behavior and mental processes?

Behavior is everything an individual does that can be directly observed, whereas mental processes are private thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be observed directly.

What four core attitudes characterize the psychological frame of mind?

Critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity, and curiosity.

What is the empirical method in psychological research?

The empirical method involves gaining knowledge through direct observation of events, collection of data, and logical reasoning.

What does empirical research show regarding the concept of matching instruction to student learning styles?

Multiple empirical studies (such as Husmann & O'Loughlin, 2019) show that matching instructional methods to student learning styles has no impact on student learning or course performance, rendering learning styles an unsupported educational myth.

What is positive psychology and what are its primary topics of study?

Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths, focusing on topics such as hope, optimism, happiness, and gratitude.

When, where, and by whom was the first laboratory of psychology established?

The first psychology laboratory was established in December 1879 at the University of Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt.

Which historical figure, known as the founder of modern psychology and structuralism, is depicted in this photograph?

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920).

What was Wundt's structuralism, and what experimental method did it use?

Structuralism focused on discovering the basic elements or structures of mental processes. It relied on introspection, a method of detailed conscious self-report in controlled laboratory settings.

How did William James's functionalism contrast with structuralism?

Functionalism probed the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in adapting to the environment, viewing mental life as a continuous 'stream of consciousness,' whereas structuralism sought to break down the mind into static structures.

What is natural selection as formulated by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859)?

Natural selection is an evolutionary process in which organisms with genetic characteristics best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive, compete successfully, and reproduce.

What milestone was achieved by Mary Whiton Calkins in 1905?

Mary Whiton Calkins became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA), despite previously being denied a PhD by Harvard University due to her sex.

Who were Charles Henry Turner and Inez Beverly Prosser in the history of psychology?

Charles Henry Turner (zoology PhD in 1907) was the first Black American to conduct psychological research, studying insect learning; Inez Beverly Prosser became the first Black American woman to receive a PhD in psychology in 1933.

What is the primary focus of the biological approach and neuroscience?

The biological approach focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system.

What are the core principles of the behavioral approach led by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner?

The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants, focusing on visible interactions shaped by rewards and punishments rather than unobservable thoughts or feelings.

What factors does the psychodynamic approach emphasize as determinants of human behavior?

The psychodynamic approach, founded by Sigmund Freud, emphasizes unconscious thought, conflicts between biological drives (such as sex and aggression) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences.

What key concepts define the humanistic approach in psychology?

The humanistic approach emphasizes a person's positive qualities, capacity for growth, altruism, and free will to choose one's destiny, as championed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

What is the main focus of the cognitive approach to psychology?

The cognitive approach emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing—how information is directed, perceived, remembered, thought about, and applied to problem solving.

How does the evolutionary approach explain human psychological characteristics?

The evolutionary approach uses concepts such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection (advocated by researchers like David Buss) as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors and mental traits.

What does the sociocultural approach examine?

The sociocultural approach examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior, comparing psychological processes across different cultures and ethnic groups.

According to research by Jackson et al. (2020), how did reminders of workplace automation by robots affect social prejudice?

Reminding individuals about robots reduced prejudice toward other human groups by highlighting the common thread of humanity that unites all people.

What are two key differences between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist?

A clinical psychologist typically has a doctoral degree in psychology (PhD or PsyD) and cannot prescribe drugs, whereas a psychiatrist is a medical physician (MD) who specializes in psychological disorders and can prescribe medication.

According to projections for 2030 shown in this chart, what sector represents the largest percentage of employment settings for psychologists with PhDs?

Offices of health practitioners, representing $41\%$ of employment settings.

How are industrial psychology and organizational psychology distinguished within I-O psychology?

Industrial (personnel) psychology focuses on personnel matters and human resource management, whereas organizational psychology focuses on social influences and leadership within organizations.

What is the core focus of community psychology?

Community psychology focuses on improving relationship quality among individuals, communities, and society, providing accessible care and preventative services for high-risk or underserved populations.

How are forensic psychology and sport psychology defined?

Forensic psychology applies psychological concepts to the legal system (e.g., jury selection and competency evaluations); sport psychology applies psychological principles to improving athletic performance and enjoyment.

How do health psychologists view the connection between mind and body?

Health psychologists view physical health and psychological wellness as deeply intertwined, holding that mental processes and daily health behaviors directly impact bodily functioning.