Ecology 1000 Capps Test 3

air pollution

dangerous contaminants in air that cause health or environmental problems; comes from either natural sources or human activities

contaminants

chemicals or tiny particles

primary source of outdoor air pollutants

fossil fuel combustion

examples of primary pollutants

sulfur dioxide, nitrogen monoxide/dioxide, carbon monoxide/dioxide, particulate matter

examples of secondary pollutants

ground-level ozone, sulfuric acid, nitric acid

Sources of primary pollutants

agriculture, mining, industry, vehicles, volcanos, dust storms, forest/grass fires

sources of secondary pollutant

primary pollutants

primary pollutants

released directly into the air

secondary pollutants

form through reactions in the atmosphere

Air Quality and Public Health History

12th century: associated with urban environments; Smog in 1948, London 1952 caused deaths, respiratory diseases

1971: EPA established

followed the Precautionary principle because they had no conclusive evidence proving a cause and effect relationship between pollutants and health; regulated 6 criteria pollutants

6 Criteria Pollutants

5 chemicals: sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, ground-level ozone, lead; particulate matter; we know they are harmful

EPA's current hazardous air pollutants list

has 193 pollutants listed, including carbon dioxide

Air Quality and Public Health

people can be affected by poor air quality because of exposure and/or sensitivity

Exposure Effects

certain jobs (truck/taxi drivers, construction workers, miners), even athletes and outdoor workers have chronic exposure

Sensitivity Effects

people with existing health conditions (asthma, COPD, heart disease, allergies); old people and kids

Deaths attributed to outdoor air pollution by region

Highest to lowest: western pacific, south-east Asia, high-income countries Middle East, Africa, Europe, Americas

deaths attributed to indoor air pollution by region

highest to lowest: south-east Asia, western pacific, Africa, Eastern Med., Europe, Americas, high-income countries

Air Quality Improving

2001-2012: ground-level ozone is 13% lower, year-round particle pollution is 24% lower, short-term particle pollution is 28% lower

Air Quality Needs to Continue Improving

health impacts occur a lower levels of air pollutants than we thought (easier to be affected), 41% of US population lives in counties with unhealthy levels of either ground-level ozone or particle pollution

Particulate Matter

major pollutant; climate change affects concentrations; comes in different sizes from different sources: dust, particles from construction, mining, agriculture; pollen; burning fossil fuels

Effects of Particulate Matter: Acute Exposure

decreased lung function (short-term), worsening of lung/heart diseases, more hospitalizations and deaths

Effects of Long-Term Exposure

Lung/heart diseases; lung and heart cancer deaths

Ground-Level Ozone

main pollutant; concentrations affected by climate change; formed from organic compounds reacting with nitrogen oxide with heat and light; harms health and vegetation

Effects of Ground-Level Ozone

connected to harmful lung/heart conditions; short-term exposure leads to hospitalizations or deaths; long-term exposure decreases lung function, may cause asthma, exacerbates other conditions (allergies and asthma); even very minor changes in concentration increases mortality rates

Allergens: Mold

grows with moisture (floods, heavy rain, humidity, high temperatures, plant growth/decay, incorrectly installed AC systems

Effects of Mold

Coughing, nose/throat conditions, exacerbates asthma and weakened immune systems

Coal Power Plant Operation

Coal is heated in a boiler, water is cooled and condensed; turbine is powered, powering a generator --> transformer --> transmission lines

Pros of Coal Power

cheaper than oil or natural gas; most abundant fossil fuel that will last for next 250 years

US Coal Deposits

Enough to last for 250 years; Most in the East and Interior (mainly bituminous), mix of subbituminous, bituminous, and lignite in the West

Asthma and Air Pollution

1997 analysis showed that between 1/3 and 1/2 of annual asthma attacks in NC were from exposure to air pollution; the more time outdoors for kids playing, the more asthma

Ozone and Asthma

increases in asthma, asthma attacks, asthma medicine, doctor and ER visits, school and work absences

Effects of Ozone

allergy symptoms, respiratory infections, ear infections, higher death rates, emphysema attacks

Traffic Emissions and Death

almost twice the death rate from heart/lung disease; 1.4x higher overall death rate

Diesel Exhaust and Immune Response

increases in asthma and allergy attacks; just harmful in general

Air Pollution and Heart Attacks

increasing air pollution increase heart attack risk; short-term exposure increases heart attacks after the day of exposure

Global Impacts of Air Pollution

high avg. annual costs for asthma patients

Mitigation

policies that focus on reducing air pollutant emissions by improving energy efficiency, using alternatives to fossil fuels, and reducing combustion of fossil fuels; also reduces urban heat island effect (where higher temps increase ozone and pollen) by maintaining green space

Adaptation

policies that deal with health impacts from exposure to air pollutants by monitoring air quality index days, promoting awareness, supporting monitoring diseases, and utilizing low allergenic pollen producing plants for landscaping; promotes the success of a species

Climate Change and Air Quality: Temp increase

one degree increase in temp would cause 1,000 more pollution-related deaths in the US

Climate Change and Exposure

can increase exposure to pollutants by creating more wind and/or air stagnation; lengthening the allergy season; increasing temps that then increase pollution from fossil fuel combustion of a/c use, production of natural sources of pollutant emissions, formation of ground-level ozone

Climate Change and Particulate Matter

increases emissions from fossil-fuel power plants because of high demand for a/c use; increases natural sources of emissions, like wildfire smoke caused by drought and heat

Climate Change and Ground-Level Ozone

increased in the summer by stagnant air, higher temps, worse air quality; affects natural sources of emissions

Diverse Ecosystems are more...

productive because different plant species use different resources, boosting productivity and bettering the environment for other plants

Global Primary Production

depends on precipitation and temperature; least productive are tundra and deserts; most productive are tropical forests

Nitrogen and Diversity

nitrogen regulates plant grown and is in soil; more diverse plots have less soil nitrogen because it is retained in the plants

Terrestrial Harvest Systems

biomes support different harvest systems

Farming Systems

temperate grasslands, temperate forests, and mediterranean biomes; difficult in tropical and coniferous biomes if forests are removed

Ranching Systems

arid lands or tundra, but other places too

Forestry Systems

wherever trees can grow

Agricultural Techniques

Polyculture and monoculture

Polyculture

a mix of crops requiring crop rotation

Monoculture

a single crop that needs industrial inputs of fertilizer and pesticide because it does not happen as naturally as in a polyculture; industrial agriculture relies on this for high outputs but also has environmental impacts from the fertilizers and pesticides

Green Revolution

selective breeding that increased crop yields globally in the 1960's

Norman Borlaug's Selective Breeding Techniques

used in the Green Revolution; created disease-resistant crops with higher yields; relied on biodiversity as a source of new crop traits; required higher amounts of fertilizer and monoculture; received Nobel Peace Prize because his work reduced famine

Results of Green Revolution

made food more available, especially in countries with famine, but also increased monoculture and industrial agricultural practices

Basis of Green Revolution

Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer, irrigation and pesticide use are unsustainable; increases in cereals (and meats, but not as much), nitrogen use, irrigation, and pesticide production

Diverse organisms contribute to

soil structure

Climate Effects on Soil

major contributor to soil structure, affecting content, depth, color, and fertility,

Types of Soil

tropical forest, temperate forest, temperate grassland, desert, tropical savanna, Mediterranean scrub, taiga, tundra

Tropical Forest Soil

rain forests are generally infertile because of high precipitation and decomposition rates; seasonal forests are more fertile; low organic content matter, low nutrient holding capacity; light color;

Temperate Forest Soil

usually fertile; neutral to slightly acidic; medium rates of decomposition; accumulation of nutrients and organic matter

Temperate Grassland Soil

neutral to slightly basic; moderate to high fertility; high and deep in organic matter; dark color

Desert Soil

low fertility; little organic matter; high in salt content (acidic); stony material lowers water infiltration

Tropical Savanna Soil

low fertility; impermeable layer near the top that keeps water

Mediterranean Scrub Soil

low to moderate fertility; low to moderate organic matter content; fragile; easily eroded

Taiga Soil

shallow and highly acidic; low decomposition rates; slow soil building; nutrients kept in plant litter rather than being absorbed into soil

Tundra Soil

lots of peat and humus; layer of permafrost; freezing and thawing make net-like surface features

Soil Horizons

form the structural layers of soil; layers in order are O, A, E, B, C, R

O Horizon

high organic matter; high biomass of soil organisms, especially decomposers

A Horizon

inorganic material; rich in nutrients; significant amounts of organic matter

E Horizon

clay particles and dissolved material travels through this layer to the B horizon

B Horizon

accumulation of materials from A and E Horizons

C Horizon

moderately weathered parent material

R Horizon

lightly weathered, consolidated bedrock

Soil Texture

determined by the mix of particle sizes in A Horizon

Soil horizons develop from

climate characteristics and soil organisms

Soil Development

caused by parent material, climate, organisms, and topography interactive

Climate and Soil Interactions

directly influences temperature, precipitation, and the freeze/thaw processes; indirectly influences soil development by affecting biotic activity

Biotic Activity and Soil Development

Activity, wind, and rain add nutrients to soils; erosion removes them

Erosion and Soil Development

steeper slopes have more erosion; valleys have more deposition

Soil Deforestation in Greece

deforestation provided land for ranching and farming, and wood for fuel and building; forest clearing increased soil loss and decreased water; enabled human population to erosion; extensive forest clearing and land conversion are sustainable

Soil Erosion caused by Poor Land Use Practices

deplete soils; caused the 1930's Dust Bowl

Erosion

soil loss exceed soil formation in many agricultural areas; soil can be broken into mineral particles, organic matter, and nutrients

Conventional Tillage

Necessary in monoculture; exposes soil to wind and water erosion

Overgrazing

removing plant matter by livestock; exposes soil to erosion; mainly in semi-arid and arid range-lands because of low productivity

Desertification

overgrazing leaves semi-arid range land permanently less productive

Deforestation

Clear-cutting temperate forests is an economically efficient way of logging

Soil Loss from Logging

removing plants exposes soil to loss through erosion, landslides, and soil degradation; tropical regions use slash and burn but it isn't sustainable for large populations

Fire Suppression

increases trees in forests, but means that any fire that does occur is even worse; biomes that typically have a lot of low-intensity fires are benefited by them

Catastrophic Fires

fire suppression increases risk of bad fires; bad fires cause high rates of soil loss

Irrigation

increases agricultural production in arid areas; increases water demand; accounts for 70% of used water globally; bad for freshwater biodiversity

Flood irrigation

gravity-fed (uses water from natural precipitation) and inexpensive, but it wastes water

sprinklers

use less water; equipment is expensive

drip irrigation

uses least amount of water; expensive equipment

Soil Salinization

low amounts of natural salts in the irrigation water stay in the field after the water evaporates, so the salts build up and the land becomes unproductive; soil fertility is lost and crops won't grow

Intensive Agriculture and Pollution

fertilizers and pesticides increase crop yield but are common agriculture pollutants

Cost of Pesticides

pesticides protect high-value crops

Environmental and Social Costs of Pesticides

poisoning animals, fish, insects, people

Pest Outbreaks and Resistance

widespread pesticide use reduces natural enemies and causes resistant populations through natural selection