AP U.S. Government & Politics: Key Concepts & Foundations

Public Policy

Government actions and decisions made to solve problems in the country.

Linkage Institutions

Things that connect people to the government and help their voices be heard, like media, elections, and political parties.

Unitary Government

A system where one strong national government holds almost all the power.

Federal Government

A system where power is shared between the national government and the state governments.

Confederation

A system where states have most of the power and the national government is very weak.

Participatory Democracy

A type of democracy where ordinary people take part directly in government decisions.

Pluralist Democracy

A system where many different groups compete to influence the government.

Elite Democracy

A system where wealthy or powerful people have the most influence in government decisions.

Beard Thesis

The idea that the Framers created the Constitution to protect their own wealth and property.

Hyperpluralism

When too many groups are involved in politics, causing government to get stuck and unable to make decisions.

Republicanism

The belief that people should elect representatives who make decisions for them.

Declaration of Independence

A document explaining why the American colonies separated from Great Britain.

Articles of Confederation

America's first government, which created a very weak national government that could not solve major problems.

Shays's Rebellion

A farmers' revolt that showed the national government under the Articles was too weak.

Factions

Groups of people with shared interests or beliefs.

Separation of Powers

The government is divided into three branches to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Checks and Balances

Each branch of government can limit or check the power of the other branches.

Virginia Plan

A plan where states with larger populations would get more representatives in Congress.

New Jersey Plan

A plan where all states would get the same number of representatives in Congress.

Great Compromise

An agreement that created a two-house Congress: one based on population and one with equal representation.

Three-Fifths Compromise

A rule that counted three out of every five enslaved people for representation and taxes.

Commerce & Slave Trade Compromise

An agreement that allowed Congress to control trade but prevented it from banning the slave trade for 20 years.

U.S. Constitution

The main set of rules for how the U.S. government is organized and how it works.

Bill of Rights

The first 10 amendments to the Constitution that protect people's basic freedoms.

Bicameral Legislature

A lawmaking body with two chambers or houses.

Unicameral Legislature

A lawmaking body with only one chamber or house.

Federalists

People who supported the Constitution and wanted a stronger national government.

Federalist 10

A paper arguing that a large republic helps control the problems caused by factions.

Federalist 51

A paper explaining that separation of powers and checks and balances keep the government from becoming too powerful.

Anti-Federalists

People who opposed the Constitution because they feared a strong national government.

Brutus 1

A paper arguing that a large national government would take power away from the states and the people.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to decide if laws or government actions are unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison

The Supreme Court case that established the power of judicial review.

Dred Scott v. Sanford

A Supreme Court decision saying that enslaved people were not citizens and had no rights.

Formal Amendment Process

The official, written process to change or add to the Constitution.

Informal Amendments

Changes in how the government works that happen through interpretation, court decisions, and practice rather than changing the Constitution's words.

Supermajority

A requirement for a vote that is more than a normal majority—usually two-thirds or three-fourths.

Social Contract

The idea that people agree to follow laws in return for protection of their rights by the government.

Popular Sovereignty

The belief that the people hold the ultimate power in government.

Limited Government

The government can only do what the Constitution allows it to do.

Rule of Law

The idea that everyone, including government leaders, must follow the law.

Individual Freedom

People have basic rights that the government cannot take away.

Equality of Opportunity

Everyone should have the same chance to succeed regardless of their background.

Federalism

A system where power is divided between the national government and the state governments.

Enumerated/Expressed Powers

Powers that are directly listed in the Constitution for the national government.

Inherent Powers

Powers the national government has because it is a sovereign country.

Implied Powers

Powers not listed in the Constitution but allowed because of the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both the national and state governments.

Reserved/Police Powers

Powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment.

Delegated Powers

All powers that the Constitution gives to the national government.

Supremacy Clause

Says that federal laws are above state laws when they conflict.

10th Amendment

Says that powers not given to the national government belong to the states or the people.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the power to regulate trade between states.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to respect each other's legal documents and decisions.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Says states cannot treat people from other states unfairly.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Said Congress can use implied powers and states cannot interfere with the national government.

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. U.S.

Ruled that Congress could use the Commerce Clause to forbid discrimination in businesses.

U.S. v. Lopez

Limited the power of the federal government under the Commerce Clause.

U.S. v. Morrison

Further limited the Commerce Clause by saying not all issues relate to commerce.

D.C. v. Heller

Said individuals have the right to own firearms.

McDonald v. Chicago

Said the right to bear arms applies to the states.

Obergefell v. Hodges

Said the Constitution protects the right to same-sex marriage.

Dual Federalism

A system where national and state governments stay mostly separate in their responsibilities.

Cooperative Federalism

A system where national and state governments work closely together on many issues.

Fiscal Federalism

A system where the national government uses money to influence what states do.

Devolution

The process of giving more power back to the states.

Funded Mandates

Federal rules that states must follow, but the federal government provides money to help.

Unfunded Mandates

Federal rules that states must follow, but no money is provided to help.

Categorical Grants

Federal money given to states for a very specific purpose.

Block Grants

Federal money given to states for a broad purpose with fewer rules.

Revenue Sharing

Federal money given to states with almost no conditions.

Initiative

A process where citizens can propose new laws and put them on the ballot.

Referendum

A process where citizens vote directly to approve or reject a law.