psych final

neuron

basic unit of the nervous system responsible for transmitting and processing information

dendrites

branch-like structures on a neuron that receive and transmit electrical signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, play a crucial role in processing and transmitting information throughout the nervous system

axon

long, slender projection that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body of a neuron; responsible for carrying information to other neurons or target cells

myelin sheath

insulating layer around nerve fibers that speeds up electrical signals

synapse

junction between two neurons where information is transmitted through chemical signals called neurotransmitters; allows for communication and coordination within the nervous system

terminal branches

final divisions of a nerve, they carry signals to the target (usually the denrite of another nerve cell)

hindbrain

part of the brain located at the brainstem; controls basic functions like breathing and heart rate; plays a crucial role in transmitting sensory information to higher brain regions

midbrain

controls emotion, memory, drive; beyond the brainstem but before the forebrain

amygdala

part of the brain responsible for processing emotions and fear responses

hippocampus

part of the brain responsible for memory formation

hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep-wake cycles; involved in emotions and sexual behavior; “fight, flight, food, fuck”

forebrain

region of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, and motor control

frontal lobe

located in the front of the brain; responsible for executive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, movement, thinking

temporal lobe

brain lobe involved in memory and hearing; located on the sides of the brain, above the ears

parietal lobe

part of the brain responsible for processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, taste, and pain; also involved in spatial awareness and perception

occipital lobe

located at the back of the brain; responsible for processing visual information; plays a crucial role in visual perception, color recognition, and object recognition

corpus callosum

a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, enabling communication and coordination between them

absolute threshold

the lowest intensity of a stimulus that is detectable by the human senses 50% of the time

signal detection theory

a theory used to measure the ability to differentiate between important signals and background noise; it involves two types of errors: false alarms (detecting a signal that isn't present) and misses (failing to detect a signal that is present)

TMS

non-invasive brain stimulation technique using magnetic fields to generate or shut off electrical currents in the brain; it can be used to treat depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders

EEG

measures electrical activity; big wires on head; good for time based data

PET

measures glucose consumption

MRI

use magnets to take pictures of the brain

fMRI

measures consumption of oxygen levels in certain brain regions using MRI tech

sensation

sensory receptors receive and represent sensory information energy from the environment; the actual feeling

perception

organizing and interpreting sensory information; recognize meaningful objects and events/who is doing this?

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation; reduces background chatter

bottom-up processing

judgement free/basic; begins with sensory receptors and work up to brain integration of sensory info

top-down processing

construction of perception by higher level mental processes; draws on experience and expectation

perceptual set

mental tendencies and assumptions

physical senses

vision, hearing, touch

chemical senses

taste, smell

facets of pain

1. physical (pain receptors, nerves)

2. psychological influences (how we view pain, expectations)

3. social-cultural (who we are with, empathy)

sensory interaction

senses are not totally separate information channels

consciousness

awareness (outside world, perceptions, feelings, thoughts), experience of brain output (personal, not necessarily observable), attention

selective attention

focusing on a certain stimulus

inattentional blindness

failure to see visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere

change blindness

failure to see changes in the environment; form of inattentional blindness

unconsciousness

1. Brain processes not aware of (priming, biases, attitude formation)

2. A state of consciousness (cannot respond to stimuli)

permanent unconsciousness

persistent vegetative state, e.g. “brain dead”; cannot be “jostled awake”

temporary unconsciousness

syncope (fainting, passing out), concussion, anesthesia; cannot be “jostled awake”

semi-consciousness

sleeping; can be “jostled awake”

full consciousness

able to report mental state, “think alouds”

subliminal perception

visual and auditory information presented at a speed and or intensity that is below the conscious threshold of perception through one or more channels and thus not readily apparent to the subject

hypnosis

changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action; works for people who are highly suggested

stages of sleep

stage 1, stage 2, stage 3/4, REM

stage 1 of sleep

brain waves begin to slow, brain activity decreases by 50%, bizzare dreamlike images

stage 2 of sleep

majority of time; nothing special happens

stages 3/4 of sleep

release of serotonin, recovery time for body and immune system; affected by alcohol

REM sleep

brain waves similar to wakefulness, active eyes, inactive body

preservation + protection theory

we sleep because it’s safe for us

restoration theory

we sleep because we rest and repair our bodies, restore our energy and immune system, and consolidate our memories

circadian rhthym

body’s timing (internal clock), regulated by suprachiasmatic nucleus in hypothalamus

sociocognitive theory

people act like how they think hypnotized people should act

dissociation theory

“trance like” state where conscious awareness is separated from other parts of consciousness

descriptive research

naturalistic/field study; qualitative surveys; just collecting data, no manipulation of a variable

experimental research

manipulating a variable to collect data (independent and dependent variables); usually done in a lab setting; can prove causality

between subjects design

two or more groups that receive different treatment

within subjects design

sane people receive same treatments; measure before and after

longitudinal design

same people tested over a long period of time

quasi experimental

two or more groups that cannot be assigned at random

confounding variables

sources of error in studies; something other than the independent variable that may effect the dependent varibale

self report bias

people are not always honest; un/intentionally dishonest, don’t answer the same question the same way at a different time

depth of processing

the way information is processed during encoding affects its later retrieval. According to this theory, information that is processed more deeply and meaningfully (e.g., through semantic analysis or making connections with existing knowledge) is more likely to be remembered than information processed at a shallow level (e.g., through surface-level features like appearance or sound)

encoding

initial learning of information and placing it in memory

memory stages

encoding (input) > storage > retrieval (output)

short term memory

can hold a small amount of information

working memory

can hold AND manipulate information

visuospatial sketchpad

where something is “placed” in your mind; visualization

phonological loop

the voice that repeats words back in your head

episodic buffer

making connections to other memories

recognition

knowing the answer when you see it

recall

being able to state the answer

encoding specificity principle

certain things can trigger a memory that is related to that thing

learning

process of acquiring through experiencing new info or behaviors

habituation

decreased response length in response of stimulus (e.g., flinch less everytime a pot is banged)

sensitization

increased response strength in response to stimulus (tickle response)

classical conditioning

type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

operant conditioning

everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped

reinforcement

any event that strengthens/increases frequency of a response

punishment

any event that weakens/decreases frequency of a response

positive (operant conditioning)

give/present something

negative (operant conditioning)

to take something away

observational learning

learning by watching and imitating others

modeling

observing a behavior then imitating it

mirror neurons

some neurons fire either when completing or watching a task

goal

representation of a desired state

motivation

driving force that enables goal pursuit; need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

intrinsic motivation

associated with the goal process; how much joy and satisfaction are you getting from the process?

extrinsic motivation

associated with the goal outcome; what are the rewards?

prevention (motivation)

engaging w/ a goal to prevent negative outcomes

promotion (motivation)

engaging w/ a goal to promote positive outcomes

self control

ability to control impulses, desires, and resist temptation

instinct theory

fixed and unlearned patterns throughout species that drive behavior

drive-reduction theory

physiological need that creates an attention state/drive (too hot/cool down; hungry/eat)

arousal theory

humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that increase or decrease arousal levels

maslow’s hierarchy of needs

priority of some needs over others

sensorimotor stage

experiences the world through sense and actions, object permanence, stranger anxiety

preoperational stage

learn to use language, cannot perform concrete logic, symbolic thinking, theory of mind