AP Psychology Unit 2: Biological Perspectives

Nervous System

Network of cells transmitting information throughout the body

Biological Psychology

Focuses on biological aspects of psychology processes

Neuron

the cells in the nervous system that carry information

Dendrites

Cell part receiving messages from other cells

Soma

cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining life of the cell

Axon

carry electrical impulses that are the means of communication within the brain and between the brain and the rest of the body

Axon Terminals

end part of an axon that makes a synaptic contact with another cell

Glial Cells

provide food, support, and insulation to the neuron cells

Myelin

Insulates and protects neurons, and speeds up neural message transmission

Oligodendrocytes

Produce myelin in the central nervous system

Schwann Cells

Produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system

Synapse

Connection point where neurons communicate

Synaptic Vesicles

Contain neurotransmitters for signal transmission

Vesicles

small sacs that are filled with liquid and membrane-bound that help transport materials that an organism needs to survive and recycle waste materials

Neurotransmitters

Substances inside synaptic vesicles for cell communication

Acetylcholine (ACh)

the first neurotransmitter to be discovered; found to regulate memories in the CNS and the action of the skeletal and smooth muscled in the PNS

Norepinephrine (NE)

Neurotransmitter regulating arousal, attention, and stress reactions; plays an important role in your body's “fight-or-flight” response

Dopamine (DA)

Neurotransmitter controlling movement and pleasure sensations; involved in parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia

Serotonin (5-HT)

Neurotransmitter affecting sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in sleep

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter for learning and memory; a neurotransmitter in the brain that sends messages between nerve cells

Endorphins

Inhibitory neural regulators involved in pain relief

Antagonist

Chemical blocking or reducing neurotransmitter effects

Agonist

Chemical enhancing or mimicking neurotransmitter effects

Central Nervous System

Includes the brain and spinal cord

Brain

Interprets and stores information

Spinal Cord

Connects brain to peripheral nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

Transmits information to and from the central nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Parasympathetic Division

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; conserves energy.

Sympathetic Division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress

Sensory System (afferent)

Part of the somatic and peripheral nervous systems. carries messages from senses to CNS (Afferent Arrives).

Motor System (efferent)

Carries messages from CNS to muscles and glands

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Endocrine Glands

organs that produce (secrete) hormones

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland; found in the brain just below the hypothalamus. It helps us conserve water and controls oxytocin, a hormone involved in the onset of labor and lactation. Also regulates growth hormone and influences the activity of the other glands.

Pineal Gland

secretes melatonin, more influential in regulating sleep-wake cycle

Thyroid Gland

produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood by secreting insulin and glucagon

Gonads

Secrete hormones that regulate sexual behavior and reproduction

Adrenal Medulla

secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine when under stress and aids in sympathetic arousal

Adrenal Cortex

produces over 30 different hormones called corticoids (aka steroids) that control salt intake, stress, and sexual development.

Adrenal Hormones

releases cortisol when body experiences stress, both physically and psychologically

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Computed Tomography (CT)

brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain, good for imaging brain structure

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Function MRI (fMRI)

Images brain functions through tracking changes in blood oxygen levels; increase in oxygen levels = increased function

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Used for imaging function; involved in injection of radioactive tracer that binds to glucose, records activity of cells that use radioactive glucose

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

technique that measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left & right hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex

Controls complex thought processes

Thalamus

part of the forebrain that relays information from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above pituitary gland; responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex

Cerebellum

part of the hindbrain that controls balance, maintains muscle coordination, and motor movement

Pons

part of the hindbrain that relays messages between the cerebellum and the cortex; influences sleep, dreaming, arousal, and coordination of movement on the left and right sides of the body.

Forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.

Hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory/motor information and relays it upward.

Medulla

part of the hindbrain that controls heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Basal Ganglia

regulates initiation of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture, and functions in processing of implicit memories

Limbic System

involved with emotions, motivation, memory, and learning

Cingulate Cortex

primary cortical component of the limbic system; involved in emotion and pain, and predicting and avoiding negative consequences

Amydgala

brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear

Reticular formation

System of nerves running from hindbrain and the midbrain to the cerebral cortex; responsible for (selective) attention

Cortex

outermost covering of the brain; divided into two sections called the cerebral hemisphere; responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input

left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spatial

Broca's Area

an area of the brain devoted to production of speech.

Wernicke's Area

Involved in understanding the meaning of words

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information from the eyes

Parietal Lobe

processes information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch; contains the somatosensory cortex

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Temporal Lobe

involved in processing auditory information and understanding language

Frontal Lobe

areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain; responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as production of fluent speech

Motor Cortex

controls the movement of the body's voluntary muscles by sending commands out to the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Consciousness

a person's awareness of everything that is going on at any given moment.

circadian rhythm

the physical, mental, and behavioral changes an organism experiences over a 24-hour cycle.

Adaptive theory

theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active

Restorative theory

states that sleep provides the body with an opportunity to restore chemicals that have been depleted during the day as well as the growth and repair of cell tissue

N1 (NREM Stage 1)

light sleep; may experience hypnogogic images or hallucinations

N2 (NREM Stage 2)

sleep is indicated by the presence of sleep spindles, bursts of activity on the EEG; body temperature drops, heart rate slows, breathing becomes more shallow and irregular

N3 (NREM Stages 3 and 4)

highlighted by the first appearance of delta waves, the slowest and largest waves, and the body is at its lowest level of functioning; deepest stage of sleep

REM sleep

occurs four or five times a night, replacing N1 after a full cycle through N1-N3 and then ascending back to lighter stages of sleep; accompanied by paralysis of the voluntary muscles but rapid movement of the eyes.

Night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occurs during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

REM behavior disorder

a rare condition in which sleep paralysis fails and the person moves violently while dreaming, often acting out the elements of the dream

Insomnia

an inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get enough sleep

Sleep Apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep

Narcolepsy

a genetic disorder in which the person suddenly and without warning collapses into REM sleep

Stimulants

drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system, particularly the sympathetic division and the central nervous system.

Amphetamines

stimulant; synthetic drugs that help people stay awake and reduce appetite but are highly physically addictive.

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Nicotine

a mildly stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco; producing a slight ‘rush’ or sense of arousal as it raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart

Caffeine

a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances; maintains alertness

Depressants

have sedative effect

physical dependence

user's body needs a drug to function; drug tolerance and withdrawal are warning signs/symptoms

psychological dependence

user believes drug is needed to function