anatomy EXAM 1: ch 1-3, 5

physiology

study of the functions of the structures of the human body

anatomy

study of the structures and the relationship among the structures

embryology

the first 8 weeks after fertilization when the sperm cell donates its chromosomes to the egg cell

surface anatomy

use surface markings to understand deep structures

radiographical anatomy

study of structures w/ visualizing through xrays

xrays

the use of electrons that run through the body to be captured on a negative film

pathological anatomy

the study of structural changes from gross to microscopical associated with disease

chemical level in the human body

atoms are organized into molecules

cellular level in the human body

molecules are organized into cells which are the basic structural and functional living units of an organism

the cell

* smallest living unit in the human body
* basic unit of life

tissue level

* cells are organized into tissues
* groups of similar cells that usually have similar embryonic origins and perform specialized functions

organ level

* 2 or more tissues organized into systems
* functionally related groups of organs that cooperated to perform a common general function

organism level

* all the systems are structurally integrated and function cooperatively to constitute the total organism

anatomical position

a standard position to ensure directional terms are used accurately


1. the body is erect w/ the feet flat on the floor
2. the upper extremities are at the side w/ the palms facing forward
3. prone position: the face is facing down
4. supine position: the face is facing up
5. it is always the specimen’s left and right side

anatomical position

body planes

imaginary flat surface that passes through the body in order to provide an informative view of a specific region of the body

sagittal plane

a vertical plane divides the body into the right and left sides

midsagittal plane

divides the body into equal right and left sides

bilateral symmetry

the right side of the body is a mirror image of the left side

parasagittal plane

divides the body into unequal right and left side

frontal plane

vertical plane divides the body into front and back half

transverse plane

divides the body into the top and bottom half

oblique plane

passes through the body throughout the body not at 90° angle

superior

near the head

inferior

near the tail/feet

anterior

front

posterior

back

medial

middle/midline

lateral

side; away from midline

intermediate

between two structures

proximal

close

distal

far

superficial

close to surface

deep

further from surface

ipsilateral

same side

contralateral

of or pertaining to the other side

parietal

attached to wall of body cavity

visceral

attached to organ itself

body cavities

enclosed spaces within the body that help protect, separate and support internal organs that are located in the cavities

dorsal body cavity

* cranial cavity
* vertebral / spinal cavity

ventral body cavity

* thoracic body cavity
* left & right pleural cavity
* mediastinum
* pericardial cavity

abdominopelvic cavity

* abdominal cavity
* pelvic cavity

serosa

* pleura
* pericardium
* peritoneum

medical imaging

permit visualization of the interior of the human body used to see tissues in histology

light microscopy

illuminates body tissues with a beam of light

electron microscopy

illuminates body tissues with a beam of electrons

radiography

waves of short wavelength directed at body and absorbed at certain density onto a negative film resulting in a radiograph or xray

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

the use of radio waves and magnetic field images to view soft structures

advanced xray techniques

* computed tomography (CT)
* series of xray images at different angles around a section of the body

sonography (ultrasound)

use of pulses of high frequency sound waves the reflect or echo of body tissues

positive emission tomography (PET)

use of isotopes to be absorbed at concentrated parts of the body

endoscopy

use of an endoscope to view internal structures and projected onto a monitor

3 major cell components

1. plasma membrane
2. cytoplasm
3. nucleus

bilayer phospholipid

2 layers of fat w/ phosphate

proteins

* peripheral: on surface
* integral: stuck

cholesterol

provides rigidity to the plasma membrane

cytoplasm

1. all the cellular content between the cell membrane and nucleus
2. includes the cytosol and organelles

cytosol

1. the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
2. made up of water and some particles

intracellular fluid

blood inside the cell

extracellular fluid

body fluid not contained in cells

passive process

substances move across a plasma membrane due to their own kinetic energy, down a concentration gradient

diffusion

process in which substances move down a concentration gradient w/out aid of membrane components

osmosis

diffusion of water

facilitated diffusion

process in which substances move down a concentration gradient with aid of membrane transport carrier protein

active transport

process in which substances move against a concentration gradient with aid of membrane transport carrier protein

endocytosis

extracellular molecules surrounded and enclosed and brought into the cell by invagination

exocytosis

intracellular vesicle-enclosed substances are released in the extracellular fluid by membrane fusion secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane

microfilaments

* thinnest structure (microvilli)
* involve in muscle cell contraction

microtubules

* largest structure determine cell shape
* function: intracellular transport of organelles
* flagella: propel the sperm cell in motility
* cilia: move materials past surfaces of the cells
* centrioles and mitotic spindles: involved in mitosis

intermediate filaments

* intermediate in size
* function: position organelles and give shape to cell

organelles

* little organelles in the cell
* have specific functions and specific shapes

centrosomes

* consists of a pair of centrioles
* organize microtubules in non-dividing cells

centrioles

* a bundle of parallel microtubules
* oriented at right angles

mitotic spindle

organizes microtubules in dividing cells

ribosomes

* granules w/ 2 subunits: proteins, ribosomal, RNA
* 2 types:


1. free floating
2. attached to endoplasmic reticulum
* function: protein synthesis

endoplasmic reticulum

* a network of interconnected flattened sacs

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

* no ribosomes
* function: lipid synthesis

rough endoplasmic reticulum

* has ribosomes
* function: protein synthesis

golgi complex/apparatus

* series of flattened sacs called cisternae, stacked on each other
* function: receive the protein and lipid to package them

membraneous system

extends from the nuclear membrane to the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the golgi complex/apparatus to the plasma membrane

lysosome

* spherical organelles
* contains digestive enzymes

peroxisomes

* spherical organelles
* contains enzymes to oxidize molecules
* found in hepatocytes and renal cells

proteasomes

* spherical organelles
* contains protease → breaks down proteins

mitochondria

* sausage shaped organelles
* 2 membranes: out and inner layer
* function: make cellular energy as adenosine triphosphate
* have own mitochondria; DNA to self replicate (ATP)

nucleus

1. largest organelle, usually spherical or oval shaped
2. enclosed by 2 layers nuclear envelope or membrane with nuclear pores for movement of substances between nucleus and cytosol
3. have spherical nucleoli where ribosomal subunits and RNA are made
4. contains chromatin (condensed into chromosomes during mitosis) composed of DNA and histone proteins organized into nucleosomes

genes

unit of hereditary information, arranged along chromoeomes

genomes

total genetic information in a cell or an organism

DNA

1. long double helix that resembles a spiral staircase held together by a centromere
2. composed of 4 subunits called nucleotides


1. thymine
2. adenine
3. cytosine
4. guanine

somatic body cells

process that separates replicated DNA into 2 daughter cells

germ cells

undergo reproductive cell division called meiosis to produce gametes

haploid cells

2 stages:


1. meiosis 1, 2 haploid cells
2. meiosis 2, 4 haploid cells

prophase

1. chromosomes condensed and coiled
2. nuclear envelope and nuclei break downs
3. centrosomes move to opposite poles
4. mitotic spindle forms

metaphase

chromosomes meet in the middle / equator of the cell

anaphase

chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles

telophase

1. chromosomes uncondensed + uncoiled
2. nuclear envelope and nucleoli reform
3. centrosomes not at opposite poles
4. mitotic spindle break down
5. cytokinesis= end up with 2 identical daughter cells

cellular diveristy

1. cells that connect body parts or cover and lines organs
2. cells that produce movement and move body parts skeletal and muscular systems
3. cells that store nutrients adipocytes and erythrocytes
4. cells that gather information and control body functions nervous system
5. cells that fight against diseases immune system
6. cells that reproduce reproductive system

aging

normal process accompanied by progressive change in the body’s homeostatic adaptive responses in order to maintain normal conditions

geriatrics

branch of medicine that deals with medical problems and care of elderly people

gerontology

scientific study of the process and problems associated with aging