MWH Hessler Study

Queen Nzinga

Hernán Cortés

Conquistador who led the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire.

Little Ice Age

Period of cooler temperatures that impacted agriculture and economies in Europe and beyond.

Columbian exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World after Columbus' voyages.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes the importance of accumulating wealth through trade and establishing colonies.

Encomienda

A system that granted Spanish colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Indigenous peoples.

Hacienda

Large estates granted to Spanish settlers that included agricultural and labor systems.

Creoles

People of Spanish descent born in the Americas.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born individuals residing in the colonies.

Mestizo

Individuals of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattoes

People of mixed European and African descent.

Plantation colonies

Colonies focused primarily on the production of crops for export using enslaved labor.

Settler colonies

Colonies established by settlers to inhabit and exploit land.

Ming dynasty

Chinese dynasty known for its trade expansion and cultural achievements.

Forbidden City

Imperial palace located in Beijing, serving as the residence of Chinese emperors.

Civil Service examinations

Merit-based exams used to select candidates for government positions in China.

Maritime voyages

Exploratory sea journeys undertaken for trade and discovery.

Qing expansion

The period during which the Qing dynasty extended its territory significantly.

Ottoman empire

A multi-ethnic and multi-religious empire based in modern-day Turkey.

Jihad

An Islamic principle often interpreted as a struggle or fight against enemies of Islam.

Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire that preserved Roman governance and culture for over a thousand years.

Constantinople

Capital city of the Byzantine Empire, significant for its strategic location.

Devshirme

Ottoman practice of conscripting boys from Christian families to serve in the military.

Safavid Empire

A Persian state known for its promotion of Shia Islam.

Shia

Branch of Islam that believes in the leadership of Muhammad's descendants.

Sunni

Branch of Islam that recognizes the first four caliphs as rightful successors.

Mughal Empire

An empire known for its rich culture and significant governance of India.

Akbar

The most notable Mughal emperor, known for his administrative reforms and religious tolerance.

Quran

The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God as revealed to Muhammad.

Ulama

Islamic scholars who interpret and teach Islamic law and theology.

Jizya

Tax levied on non-Muslims in an Islamic state.

Aurangzeb

Mughal emperor known for his expansionist policies and strict adherence to Islam.

Sharia

Islamic law derived from the Quran and Hadith.

Songhay Empire

A prominent West African empire known for its wealth and trade networks.

Trans-Saharan commerce

Trade routes connecting North Africa to sub-Saharan Africa.

Timbuktu

A historic city known as a center of trade, culture, and Islamic scholarship.

Mosques

Places of worship in Islam.

Protestant Reformation

Movement initiated to reform the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church.

Martin Luther

Religious leader who challenged the Catholic Church and sparked the Reformation.

95 Theses

List of propositions for debate regarding church practices, particularly the sale of indulgences.

Indulgences

Payments made to the Church purportedly to reduce punishment for sins.

Printing Press

Technological innovation that allowed for the mass production of books and literature.

John Calvin

Reformer whose teachings influenced the development of the Protestant movement. Main doctrin was predestination–future already determined.

30 Years War (1618-1648)

Started as a clash between Catholic and Protestant states within Rome, but became a major war including France, Germany, and Sweeden

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years War and established a framework for state sovereignty.

Counter Reformation

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming and reaffirming church doctrine.

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Ecumenical council that clarified Catholic doctrine and reformed church practices.

Missionaries

Individuals sent to promote their religious beliefs, often in foreign territories.

Syncretic Religions

Religious beliefs that merge different cultural traditions. Examples: Shikisim (Hindu+Islam) and Neo-Confucianisim (Budhisim, Daoisim, Confucianisim)

Sufis

Mystical Islamic practitioners who seek direct experiences with God.

Neo-Confucianism

Philosophical movement that sought to reinterpret Confucianism in light of Buddhist and Daoist elements.

Sikhism

Religion founded in the Punjab region, blending elements of Hinduism and Islam.

Scientific Revolution

Intellectual movement characterized by advances in scientific thought and methodology.

Skepticism

Philosophical attitude questioning the validity of knowledge and beliefs.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory of the solar system.

Galileo

Scientist who championed the heliocentric model and conducted notable astronomical observations.

Isaac Newton

Mathematician and physicist whose work laid the foundations for classical mechanics.

Natural philosophers

Early scientists and thinkers who studied the natural world and sought to explain it.

European Enlightenment

Cultural and intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism over tradition.

Voltaire

Philosopher and writer known for his advocacy of civil liberties and critique of organized religion.

Deism (Universe as a “clock”)

Belief in a rational creator who does not intervene in the universe.

Salons

Social gatherings for intellectual exchange and discussion during the Enlightenment.

Encyclopédie

Comprehensive collection of knowledge that aimed to summarize human understanding.

Indian Ocean Commercial Network

Trade routes connecting merchants across the Indian Ocean region.

Trading Post Empire

Colonial empire based on establishing trade outposts rather than territorial conquest.

Philippines; Manila

Significant Spanish colonial city known for trade in the Pacific.

British East India Company

Founded in 1602, it is widely considered the world's first multinational corporation and the first to issue public stock. It was incredibly wealthy, holding an effective monopoly on the Asian spice trade

Dutch East India Company

Focused primarily on controlling the lucrative trade routes and the production of spices in Southeast Asia

Fluyts

Types of sailing vessels developed for economical shipping.

Daimyo

Feudal lords in Japan who controlled land and resources.

Samurai

Warrior class in feudal Japan, known for their code of honor.

Shogun

Military commander in Japan who held power over the country.

Manila galleons

Spanish treasure ships that sailed between Mexico and the Philippines.

Silver drain

Flow of precious metals from the Americas to Europe and Asia.

Potosi

Major center of silver mining in colonial Bolivia.

Mestiza

Woman of mixed European and Indigenous heritage.

Fur trade

Commercial trade involving animal pelts, significant in North American economies.

Mourning wars

Conflicts fought by Native American tribes to compensate for losses.

Transatlantic slave system

Trade network that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas.

Middle passage

The sea route used to transport enslaved Africans to the Americas.

African diaspora

The forced dispersal of Africans to various parts of the world.

Sugar

A primary cash crop cultivated on plantations, often using enslaved labor.

Queen Nzinga

Leader of Ndongo and Matamba who resisted Portuguese colonization.

Benin

Kingdom in West Africa known for its advanced governance and trade.

Commerce

The activity of buying and selling, especially on a large scale.

Commercialization

Process of managing and organizing trade activities.

Merchants

Individuals engaged in the buying and selling of goods.

Wage labor

System where workers are paid a fixed compensation for their work.

Economic networks

Systems of interrelated economic activities linking different regions.