sociology final

poverty in the states

Despite a high average US standard of living, poverty afflicts millions of people

poverty line

amount of money needed to support the basic needs of a household

• Below this line, one is considered officially poor

how many people in the US fall below the poverty line

40 million, 12.3% of the population

what is a myth of poverty

that success requires only individual motivation and ability

what does culture of poverty argue

that the major causes of poverty are absence of work value and the irresponsibility of the poor 

what is culture of poverty incorrect

because most able bodied individuals do work, even if only part time

what are the underlying causes of poverty in the US

economic and social structures

social differentiation

how different statuses develop in any group, organization, or society

social stratification

relatively fixed, hierarchical arrangement in society by which groups have different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth

define power in the context of social stratification

the ability to bring about some intended outcome, even is that outcome is opposed by others

what differences can make it seem as if people are living in two different societies

social class different

what is social stratification a system of?

structured social inequality

do all societies have social stratification?

yes

complex societies often stratify according to…

social class. this is influenced by occupation, income, education, race, gender, region of residence, ethnicity, national origin, and even age

what are stratification systems categorized into?

estate, caste, and class

what is estate

a system in which a small elite group (owners of property and power) has total control over resources

what is caste

a system where status is ascribed (given at birth)

what is class

a system based on ascribed and achieved statuses

class structure of united states in relation to the growing inequality

class divisions in the US are real, and inequality is gowing

what made class divisions in the US more apparent in 2008?

a financial crisis and national recession

economic restructuring

the decline of manufacturing jobs in the United States

what is the effect of the decline of manufacturing jobs

• these structural changes are having a profound effect on the life chances of people in different social classes

• many working class once employed in manufacturing jobs are now in lower-wage jobs (such as fast food, retail, etc)

social mobility

you may be able to climb up the ladder if others allow you to, or if you achieve it, but others may push you down or up a rung or two

generally, people usually stay on, or close to, the rung they started on

according to Marx, why is there inequality

classified people into two social classes:

• bourgeoise- owners of the means of production

• proletariat- working who sell their labors for wages, also referred to as the exploited masses

also classified the petty bourgeoisie (small business owners) and the lumpen proletariat (jobless)

reason for inequality according to Max Weber

Weber saw three dimensions to stratification:

• class- the economic dimension

• status (or prestige)- the cultural and social dimension

• party (or power)- the political dimension

what is Weber’s view of society

multidimensional view since he analyzed the connections between economic, cultural, and political systems

The social construction of race and ethnicity

a racial or ethnic group is a social category of people who share a common culture:

• common dialect or language, common nationality, common religion, common norms, practices customs, and history

why do ethnic groups develop

because of their unique historical and social experiences

how do people in the US typically identify ethnically?

multiethnic and multiracial identity

ethnicity

shared cultural heritage, often deriving from a common ancestry and homeland

race

category of people widely perceived as sharing socially significant physical characteristics, such as skin color

what define racial groups?

how groups have been treated historically and socially

NOT biological characteristics

what is mean when sociologists define race as a social construct

differences in physical characteristics, but no meaningful biological differences that account for the idea of race

meaningful biological differences in race?

these are largely invisible, like predisposition to diease

racialization

when some social category, such as a social class or nationality, takes on what is perceived to be racial characteristics

what is an example of racialization and how race is a socially constructed category

Jewish peopleJewish people are more accurately called an ethnic group due to religious and cultural heritage, but were defined as a race in Nazi Germany

Salience principle

states that we categorize people on the basis of what appears initially prominent 

how is the choice of salient characteristics determined?

culturally

how do the traits used to define racial groups vary?

they vary both within groups and between groups

• defining differences are somewhat arbitrary, and different groups use different criteria to define racial groups

what is racial formation?

process by which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and/or destroyed

minority group

any distinct group in society that shares common group characteristics and occupies low status in society because of, in many cases, prejudice and discrimination

how are minority groups defined and why

defined by their subordinate status in society because of the power that dominant groups hold over them. 

are minority groups always smaller in number compared to a major group?

not always

a group may be classified as a minority on the basis of…

ethnicity, race, gender, sexual preferences, age, religion, or class status

what do people do in everyday social interaction?

categorize other people into groups

what is a stereotype?

an oversimplified set of beliefs about members of a social group or social stratum

what do stereotypes presume to describe?

the typical member of some social group

what is ethnocentrism

the belief that one’s group is superior to all other groups

what is prejudice

evaluation of a social group and its members that is based on misconceptions and false generalizations

• usually negative and hostile

• prejudiced attitudes are learned

• prejudice involves both prejudgement and misjudgement

• virtually no one is 100% free of prejudice

what is discrimination

the unequal treatment of members of some social group or stratum solely because of their membership in that group

prejudice vs discrimination

prejudice is an attitude; discrimination is overt behavior

social construction of gender

from birth (or earlier), gender expectations influence how boys and girls are treated, for instance:

• parents might select pink clothes and dolls for girls, and sports clothing and brighter colors for boys

what does sex refer to

biological identity (being male or female)

what does gender refer to

socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with members of each sex

biological determinism

explanations that attribute complex social phenomena to physical characteristics alone

what is an example of a biological determinist argument

men are more aggressive because of hormonal differences

when is a person’s sex identity established

a person’s sex identity

intersex

individuals have mixed biological sex characteristics

gender socialization

people learn the expectations of their sex

what does gender socialization affect

one’s self concepts, social and political attitudes, perceptions about other people, and feelings about relationships with others

does everyone conform to gender expectations?

no

gender identity

one’s definition of oneself as a woman or man — self concept

what does gender identity shape

self expectations, abilities and interests, how we interact with others

gender identity

influences numerous behaviors

what are sources of gender socialization

family, peers, children’s play, schooling, religious training, mass media

when is gender socialization reinforced

whenever gender linked behaviors receive approval or disapproval from the influences of gender socialization (family, peers, children’s play, schooling, religious training, mass media)

gender stratification

the hierarchical distribution of social and economic resources according to gender

gender apartheir

extreme segregation and exclusion of women from public life

work and income (gender apartheid)

income gap persists despite more participation of women in the labor force; women still earn less than men, typically makes roughly 80% of what men earn (this was roughly 59% in the 1960s)

devaluation of women’s work

women are concentrated in many devalued jobs (Associated with childcare and household labor and nurturing occupations)

• only a small proportion of women work traditionally in male occupations

what indicates likelihood of success within institutions

perceptions of gender appropriate behavior influence

feminism

not a single way of thinking and acting; it refers to advocating for a more just society for women

feminist theory

historically has analyzed the position of women in society for the explicit purpose of improving their position in it

sex typed behaviors

a behavior is sex typed when it is more expected and therefore perceived as appropriate when performed by one sex but less expected and therefore perceived as inappropriate when performed by the other sex

gender socialization and sex typed behaviors

gender socialization works by rewarding children for engaging in sex typed behaviors consistent with their assigned sex category

example of sex typed behavior

crying- ok for girls, but boys are told not to

human sexuality

is shaped by society and culture

how do sexual relationships and identities develop

within a social context

sexual orientation

attraction that people feel for people

sexual identity

definition of oneself formed around one’s sexual relationship

what is most significant in shaping sexual identity

social experiences

how do human sexual attitudes and behaviors vary

they vary in different cultural contexts

second shift (hochschild)

refers to women’s housework after working all day in a pair job

third shift of women’s work

the amount of help that women (compared to men) give to family members (such as older parents) and friends

family

primary group of people connected by blood, marriage, or adoption, in a cooperative economic unit to care for offspring and each other. committed to maintaining the group over time

kinship system

patterns of relationships that define people’s relationships to one another within a family 

• vary enormously across cultures and over time

polygamny

practice of one individual having multiple marriage partners

polygyny

one man and two or more wives

polyandry

one woman and two or more husbands

monogamy

sexually exclusive marriage with one spouse at a time

patrilineal kinship

systems trace descent through the father

matrilineal kinship

systems trace descent through the mother

bilateral kinship

traces descent through both

functionalists

see the family as filling particular societal needs, including socializing children

conflict theorists

view family as a system of power relations that reinforces and reflects the inequalities

symbolic interaction theoriests

focus on the meanings people give to behavior as the basis of social interaction

studies how people negotiate family relationships, such as deciding who does what, or how they will arrange childcare

diversity among families

family is one of the most rapidly changing social institutions; changes are contingent upon social structures- there is no static or natural form for the family

how have families changed

families are smaller than in the past, fewer births, and they are more closely spaced

child bearing and child raising now occupy a smaller fraction of parents’ adult life

also the percentage of women in married couple families who work has substantially increased

diversity among families

demographic and structural changes create diversity in family forms: married couples presently make up a smaller proportion of households than in the past; single parent, divorced, and never married households have increased

what is one of the greatest changes in families

women headed households; one quarter of all children live with one parent