Chapter 11: Problem Solving and Creativity

Cognitive Psych

problem solving

process necessary to reach a goal, typically where the solution is not immediately obvious

what are the 3 stages or components to every problem?

the initial state, the goal state, and the obstacles

the initial state

describes the situation at the beginning of the problem

the goal state

when you solve the problem

the obstacles

describes the restrictions that make it hard to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

understanding

the idea that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem based on both the info provided in the problem and personal previous experience

what cognitive activities are used when problem solving?

attention, memory, and decision making

what do effective problem solvers do?

read descriptions carefully, pay attention to inconsistencies, and scan strategically to decide what info is most important

problem representation

refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format

what are some effective methods of representing problems?

using symbols, matrices, diagrams, or visual images

what is the most common error when using symbols to represent a problem?

reversing the roles of the 2 variables in the “formula”

matrix

a grid consisting of rows and columns that shows all possible combinations of items

hierarchical tree diagram

a figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem

how can visual images aid in problem representation?

they allow us to escape from the boundaries of traditional representations

situated cognitive approach

suggests that we often use helpful info in our immediate environment to process info

what is an example of the situated cognitive approach?

supporting the idea that college students can learn more effectively during internships and other practice settings

embodied cognition approach

states that we often use our own body and our motor actions in our expression of our abstract thoughts and knowledge

what did the Tower of Hanoi study show?

results strongly implicated the role of body movements in learning about a problem while actively solving it

algorithm

a method that will always produce a solution to the problem

heuristic

a general rule that is usually correct, but it is not guaranteed

what are three of the most widely used heuristics?

the analogy approach to problem solving

when you employ a situation to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new one

what is the major challenge when using the analogy approach?

determining the real problem

problem isomorphs

refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details

surface features

the specific objects or terms used in a question

structural features

the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly

what are the 2 important components in the means-end heuristic?

(1) you divide the problem into a number of subproblems and then (2) you try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each subproblems

means-ends heuristic

when you identify the “ends” that you want and then figure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends

what problem-solving strategy do researchers suggest is the most effective and flexible?

the means-ends heuristic

the hill-climbing heuristic

when you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

what is the biggest drawback with the hill-climbing heuristic?

problem solvers might fail to choose an indirect alternative that can lead to better long-term goals

bottom-up processing

highlights the info about the stimulus, as registered by our sensory receptors

top-down processing

emphasizes our concepts, expectations, and memory, which we have acquired from past experience

who is more likely to use the means-ends heuristic effectively when encountered with a novel problem?

experts

mental set

tendency to keep trying to same solution you’ve used in previous problems when problem-solving

fixed mindset

tendency to believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence in something, that no amount of extra effort can help you perform any better

growth mindset

belief that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that occurs when we assign stable functions to an object

what is the result that occurs when your top-down processing is overactive?

functional fixedness

stereotype threat

if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype then your performance may suffer

what are the results of stereotype threat?

high arousal and high thought suppression

insight problem

requires a cognitive solution that is not immediately clear, but suddenly bursts into consciousness

top-down processing might prevent you from solving what kind of problem?

an insight problem

non-insight problem

can be solved gradually by using memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies

when is your confidence the highest, in the context of problem-solving?

when working on an insight problem

what did Guilford propose that psychologists should measure creativity with?

the number of different responses made to a test item

extrinsic motivation

the motivation to work on a task only to earn a promised reward

intrinsic motivation

motivation to work on tasks for their own sake and because you find them interesting, exciting or challenging

self-efficacy

the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a specific task

perseverance

ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles