AP Psychology Ultimate Guide (copy)

Roots of Psychology

Roots of Psychology

The origins of psychology can be traced back to philosophy and physiology/biology in ancient Greece over 2,000 years ago, with key figures like Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Locke contributing to early theories.

Structuralism

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt, structuralism focused on introspective analysis of immediate conscious sensations to identify the basic elements of consciousness like sensations, feelings, and images.

Functionalism

William James led the functionalist approach, emphasizing the study of behavioral functions, active processing of sensations and actions, and practical applications of psychological findings.

Behavioral Approach

This approach focuses on measuring and recording observable behavior in relation to the environment, emphasizing learning theory and the ABCs of behavior (Antecedent, Behavior, Consequences).

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory explores unconscious conflicts, motives, and defenses, shaping personality and behavior through early life experiences and the unconscious mind.

Humanistic Approach

Humanists like Maslow and Rogers believe in free will, personal growth, and positive human nature, valuing feelings and focusing on individual uniqueness and self-actualization.

Evolutionary Approach

Evolutionary psychologists explain behavior patterns as adaptations selected for increasing reproductive success, drawing from Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection.

Cognitive Approach

Cognitive psychologists study thinking, memory, information processing, and language to understand human behavior, emphasizing mental processes and information flow.

Sociocultural Approach

This approach examines how cultural differences influence behavior, emphasizing the impact of social and environmental factors on individual and group behavior.

Biopsychosocial Model

Integrating biological, psychological, and social factors, this model provides a comprehensive understanding of behavior and mental processes, drawing from multiple psychological approaches.

Domains of Psychology

Different domains like clinical, counseling, developmental, educational, forensic, health, industrial/organizational, neuropsychology, psychometrics, and social psychology focus on specific areas of research and practice within psychology.

Percentile score

Indicates the percentage of scores at or below a particular score.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the degree of relatedness or association between two sets of data, X and Y.

Scattergrams

Graphical illustrations showing the strength and direction of correlations between paired X and Y scores.

Inferential statistics

Used to interpret data and draw conclusions, determining if results can be generalized to the whole population.

Statistical significance (p)

Measures the likelihood that differences between groups result from a real difference rather than chance.

Meta-analysis

Combines results of individual research studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Ethical Guidelines

Principles and code of conduct by the APA for psychologists in various roles.

Intellectual property

Discussing authorship credit openly to avoid conflicts.

Informed consent

Ensures voluntary participation in research with knowledge of risks, benefits, and rights.

Biological Bases of Behavior

Study of brain structure and function in relation to behavior.

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system, consisting of cell body, dendrites, and axon.

Plasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize and take over functions of damaged regions.

Endocrine system

Glands that secrete hormones into the blood to regulate bodily functions.

Ovaries and Testes

Gonads responsible for hormone production and development of secondary sex characteristics in females and males, respectively.

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of behaviors favored by natural selection for survival and reproduction, examining universal behaviors shared by all people.

Behavioral Geneticists

Study the role of genes and environment in various traits, investigating individual differences and heritability.

Identical Twins

Twins sharing all genes, originating from the same fertilized egg; known as monozygotic twins.

Fraternal Twins

Siblings sharing about half of genes, developing from different fertilized eggs; referred to as dizygotic twins.

Heritability

Proportion of variation in a population's traits due to genetic factors.

Genotype

Genetic makeup determining an individual's traits.

Phenotype

Observable expression of an individual's genes.

Unconscious

Level of consciousness containing unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to awareness.

Circadian Rhythm

Internal process regulating the sleep-wake cycle influenced by light and darkness.

Hypnagogic State

Initial stage of sleep characterized by relaxation and non-responsiveness to stimuli.

Meditation

Techniques focusing concentration away from thoughts to induce calmness and tranquility.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals altering perception, behavior, and mood by passing through the blood-brain barrier.

Absolute Threshold

Weakest stimulus level detectable at least half the time.

Transduction

Conversion of stimulus energy into neural impulses.

Visual Pathway

Process of converting light energy into neural impulses through photoreceptors, the retina, and visual cortex.

Color Vision

Perception of colors based on wavelengths of light and the sensitivity of photoreceptors.

Auditory Neurons

Neurons forming the auditory nerve by synapsing with hair cells in the cochlea.

Sound Localization

Process of determining the location of a sound, involving the auditory nerve and auditory cortex.

Place Theory

Theory stating that the position on the basilar membrane where waves reach their peak depends on the frequency of a tone.

Frequency Theory

Neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve match the frequency of a tone, enabling the sense of pitch.

Conduction Deafness

Loss of hearing due to eardrum puncture or ossicles' inability to vibrate.

Nerve (Sensorineural) Deafness

Results from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory neurons.

Somatosensation

Encompasses touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain sensations.

Gate-Control Theory

Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall's theory explaining the experience of pain.

Kinesthesis

System enabling the sense of body parts' position and movement.

Gustation

Sense of taste; one of the chemical senses.

Olfaction

Sense of smell; another chemical sense.

Selective Attention

Focusing awareness on a limited aspect of experience.

Gestalt Principles

Organizing principles for form perception, including proximity, closure, and similarity.

Visual Capture

Vision dominating in conflicts among senses.

Depth Perception

Ability to judge the distance of objects.

Perceptual Constancy

Maintaining object size, shape, and brightness perception despite changes.

Perceptual Set

Influence of mental predisposition on perception.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate a new stimulus with an existing response.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of voluntary behaviors.

Reinforcers

Primary, secondary, and generalized reinforcers influencing behavior.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Insight, latent learning, and social learning.

Biological Factors in Learning

Preparedness, mirror neurons, and conditioned taste aversion.

Models of Memory

Information Processing Model and Levels-of-Processing Model.

Semantic encoding

Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input, associated with deep processing.

Three-Stage Model

Atkinson–Shiffrin model describes sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Represents visual or auditory stimuli briefly before encoding into memory.

Selective attention

Focuses awareness on specific stimuli for encoding into short-term memory.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires focused attention and conscious effort.

Chunk

A unit of information in short-term memory, can be a word or a date.

Working memory model

Active memory system with phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and central executive.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Permanent memory system for facts and experiences.

Explicit memory

Consciously known facts and experiences (semantic and episodic memory).

Implicit memory

Unconsciously remembered skills and procedures (procedural memory).

Hierarchies

Arrangement of concepts from general to specific classes.

Schemas

Preexisting mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Neural network

Information processing model based on connections between neurons.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increased efficiency of signal transmission in long-term memory.

Retrieval

Process of accessing information from memory storage.

Distributed practice

Spreading out learning over multiple sessions to aid memory retention.

Interference

Learning of some information hinders the retrieval of other information.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into memory of an event.

Phonemes

Basic sound units in language.

Morphemes

Smallest units of speech with meaning.

Syntax

Rules determining word combinations in language.

Semantics

Rules enabling meaning derivation from words and sentences.

Holophrase

Single word conveying meaning in language acquisition.

Algorithm

Step-by-step problem-solving strategy guaranteeing a solution.

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem solution.

Availability heuristic

Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports preconceptions and ignoring contradictory data.

Creativity

Ability to think in new ways and generate unconventional solutions.

Standardization

Establishing test norms and ensuring uniform test administration and scoring.

Performance Tests

Include SATs, AP tests, Wechsler intelligence tests, Stanford–Binet intelligence tests, classroom tests, computer tests, and road tests for a driver’s license.

Observational Tests

Assess typical behavior or performance in a specific context without a single, well-defined task.

Speed Tests

Administer a large number of easy items with strict time limits where most test takers cannot answer all questions.

General Mental Ability

Crucial for scholastic performance and cognitively demanding tasks.

Interests

Influence reactions and satisfaction with situations.

Personality

Involves consistent behavior across various situations.