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Scientific Method
A process involving identifying a problem, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and communicating findings.
Independent Variable
The factor you change in an experiment.
Dependent Variable
The factor you measure.
Control Variables
Factors that remain constant.
Theory
A well-tested explanation of observations (e.g., Theory of Evolution).
Law
A rule that describes a pattern in nature (e.g., Law of Gravity).
Replication
Another scientist repeats your experiment.
Repetition
Conducting multiple trials for accuracy.
Periodic Table
Elements arranged by atomic number (number of protons).
Groups (Columns)
Share similar properties (e.g., Group 1 = Alkali metals, very reactive).
Periods (Rows)
Elements gradually change properties from left to right.
Metals
Good conductors, malleable, ductile.
Nonmetals
Poor conductors, brittle.
Metalloids
Have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
Atomic Structure
Protons (+) and neutrons (0) are in the nucleus; electrons (-) orbit the nucleus in energy levels.
Newton's First Law of Motion
Inertia - Objects in motion stay in motion unless acted on by an external force.
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Force = Mass × Acceleration - More force leads to more acceleration.
Newton's Third Law of Motion
Action-Reaction - Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Speed
Distance / Time.
Velocity
Includes direction (e.g., 30 m/s east).
Acceleration
The rate at which velocity changes.
Kinetic Energy
Energy of motion.
Potential Energy
Stored energy.
Heat Transfer
Includes conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction
Direct contact (e.g., metal spoon in hot soup).
Convection
Movement of fluids (e.g., boiling water).
Radiation
Transfer through electromagnetic waves (e.g., the Sun).
Cell Theory
All living things are made of cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; all cells come from preexisting cells.
Prokaryotic Cells
No nucleus, simple (e.g., Bacteria).
Eukaryotic Cells
Have a nucleus and organelles (e.g., Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists).
Photosynthesis
Equation: CO₂ + H₂O + Sunlight → O₂ + Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆); takes place in the chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration
Equation: Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Energy (ATP); takes place in the mitochondria.
The Carbon Cycle
Includes photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion.
Big Bang Theory
Universe started from an explosion ~13.8 billion years ago.
Galaxies
Types include spiral (Milky Way), elliptical, and irregular.
Weather
Short-term atmospheric conditions.
Climate
Long-term weather patterns in an area.
Water Cycle
Evaporation → Condensation → Precipitation → Runoff.
Periodic Table of Elements
An organized chart of all known elements, arranged by atomic number (number of protons).
Groups
Vertical columns (1-18) that contain elements with similar chemical properties.
Periods
Horizontal rows (1-7) that show trends in atomic structure.
Atomic Number
The unique number of protons in an element, determining its identity.
Atomic Mass
The mass of an element, typically measured in atomic mass units (amu).
Neutrons
Calculated as Atomic mass - Atomic number.
Metals
Elements that are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile.
Nonmetals
Elements that are dull, brittle, poor conductors, and many are gases at room temperature.
Metalloids
Elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals and can be semi-conductors.
Alkali Metals
Highly reactive metals in Group 1 with one valence electron that easily forms +1 ions.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Very reactive metals in Group 2 with two valence electrons that form +2 ions.
Transition Metals
Less reactive metals in Groups 3-12 that can form multiple oxidation states.
Halogens
Very reactive nonmetals in Group 17 with seven valence electrons that need one more to form a stable compound.
Noble Gases
Nonreactive gases in Group 18 with a stable electron configuration and full outer shell.
Atomic Size
Increases down a group and decreases across a period.
Reactivity of Metals
More reactive as you move down a group.
Reactivity of Nonmetals
More reactive as you move up a group.
Electronegativity
Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Valence Electrons
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that determine how elements bond.
Ionic Bond
Transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.
Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
Metallic Bond
Electrons move freely between metal atoms, allowing conductivity.
Element
A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Symbol
A one or two-letter abbreviation for an element.
Atomic Mass
The weighted average mass of an element's isotopes.
Protons
Positively charged particles in an atom's nucleus.
Neutrons
Neutral particles in an atom's nucleus.
Electrons
Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.
Formula for Finding Neutrons
Neutrons = Atomic Mass - Atomic Number
Hydrogen (H)
A unique nonmetal that is highly reactive.
Gold (Au) and Silver (Ag)
Excellent conductors, valuable for electronics and jewelry.
Uranium (U)
The heaviest naturally occurring element with atomic number 92.
Carbon (C)
The element of life, found in all living things.
Scientific Method
A systematic approach to inquiry: Observation → Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Data Collection → Conclusion.
Independent Variable
The variable that is changed in an experiment.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured in an experiment.
Control
The variable that remains constant in an experiment.
Scientific Theory
A well-tested explanation for a phenomenon (e.g., Cell Theory, Theory of Evolution).
Scientific Law
A statement that describes patterns in nature (e.g., Law of Gravity, Newton's Laws).
States of Matter
The distinct forms that different phases of matter take on: solid, liquid, gas, plasma.
Physical Properties
Characteristics that can be observed without changing the substance (e.g., color, density).
Chemical Properties
Characteristics that describe a substance's ability to change into different substances (e.g., flammability).
Compound
A substance formed when two or more elements are chemically bonded (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).
Mixture
A combination of two or more substances that are not chemically bonded (e.g., salad, air).
Signs of a Chemical Change
Indicators such as color change, gas production, temperature change, and precipitate formation.
Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is not created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Forms of Energy
Different types of energy including kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical, electrical, and nuclear.
Newton's 1st Law of Motion
An object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an external force (inertia).
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass (F = ma).
Newton's 3rd Law of Motion
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred.
Layers of Earth
The Earth consists of the Crust (solid), Mantle (semi-solid), Outer Core (liquid iron/nickel), and Inner Core (solid iron/nickel).
Plate Tectonics
The theory explaining the movement of the Earth's plates, including convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.
Water Cycle
The continuous process of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection.
Weather vs. Climate
Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions, while climate refers to long-term weather patterns.
Solar System
The collection of planets and other celestial bodies orbiting the Sun.
Moon Phases
The progression of the Moon's appearance from New Moon to Waning Crescent.
Tides
The rise and fall of sea levels caused by the Moon's gravity.
Seasons
The four divisions of the year caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis.
Cell Theory
The theory that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and cells come from preexisting cells.
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants convert CO₂ and H₂O into O₂ and glucose using sunlight.
