International anarchy

What is international anarchy?

The absence of a higher authority above sovereign states in the international system.

Why is the international system anarchic according to realists?

There is no authority higher than the state that can reliably enforce rules upon all states.

What does anarchy mean for state survival?

States must depend primarily on themselves for their own survival.

What is self-help?

The realist idea that states must rely on their own capabilities rather than assuming that other states or international organisations will protect them.

Why must states maximise power and security?

Because no higher authority can guarantee their survival.

How do realists view international cooperation?

Cooperation occurs only when states believe they will gain more from it than they would by acting alone.

What is a zero-sum game?

A situation in which one actor's gain is perceived as another actor's loss.

How does the zero-sum concept apply to realism?

States may view international politics as competition in which another state's increase in power can threaten their own position.

Why do realists reject the idea of guaranteed global peace?

There is no higher authority capable of consistently enforcing peace between sovereign states.

What is the billiard ball model?

A realist model that treats states as separate, independent units operating within an anarchic international system.

Why are states compared to billiard balls?

Each state is treated as a separate unit with a hard shell of sovereignty.

What does the 'hard shell' represent?

The sovereignty of a state and the idea that what happens internally is largely hidden from outside actors.

How does the billiard ball model view states?

States are treated as relatively unified actors that interact with one another.

Why are interactions between states unpredictable?

There is no guaranteed mechanism for resolving disputes between sovereign states.

What is self-help in the billiard ball model?

States rely on their own power and capabilities to survive and protect their interests.

What determines whether states cooperate, compete or clash?

The distribution of power within the international system.

How does realism view conflict?

Realists generally view conflict as inevitable because states constantly compete for economic, military and political power.

Why can international law fail according to realism?

States may ignore international law when following it does not serve their interests.

What example supports the realist view of international law?

Russia's invasion of Ukraine demonstrates how a powerful state can ignore widespread international condemnation and international laws.

How does Russia's position on the UN Security Council support realism?

Despite being a permanent Security Council member, Russia has violated international laws, demonstrating that powerful states can act against international rules.

What does the Israel-Palestine example demonstrate according to the notes?

It is used to illustrate the realist argument that states may ignore international pressure and international law when pursuing their own interests.

What would a realist conclude from states ignoring international rules?

States are primarily interested in their own gains and there is no power greater than the state.

What is the security dilemma?

The idea that actions taken by one state to increase its own security can unintentionally make other states feel less secure.

What is another name for the security dilemma?

The spiral model.

Why can the security dilemma lead to conflict?

One state's defensive actions may be interpreted as offensive by another state, causing that state to respond with further military or security measures.

Why can conflict occur even when neither state wants war?

Each state may respond defensively to the perceived threat created by the other state's actions.

What does the security dilemma demonstrate about international anarchy?

Without a higher authority to guarantee security, states may increase their own capabilities, unintentionally escalating tensions.

How does NATO expansion relate to the Ukraine security dilemma?

NATO expanded eastwards after the Cold War, incorporating several former Soviet states.

How did NATO view its eastward expansion?

NATO viewed expansion as defensive and intended to promote security and stability.

How did Russia interpret NATO expansion?

Russia interpreted it as an offensive threat to its security and regional influence.

How did Russia respond to perceived NATO expansion?

Russia increased military activity and influence in its near abroad, including the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and support for separatists in eastern Ukraine.

How did Russia justify its actions?

Russia framed them as defensive actions intended to protect Russian speakers and prevent NATO encirclement.

How did NATO respond to Russian actions?

NATO increased military support for Ukraine and strengthened its eastern flank.

How did Russia interpret NATO's response?

Russia interpreted it as further aggression.

How did the security dilemma contribute to the 2022 Ukraine war?

Each side interpreted the other's security measures as threatening, creating a spiral of escalation that contributed to the full-scale invasion in 2022.

What does the Ukraine conflict demonstrate about the spiral model?

Defensive actions by one side can be interpreted as offensive by another, leading to escalating hostility and war.