Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes Flashcards

These vocabulary flashcards cover fundamental concepts of human biology, including homeostasis, organ system functions, cellular processes, and developmental stages as described in the lecture notes.

Homeostasis

The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite constant changes both inside and outside the body.

Negative Feedback

The body's primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis by reversing a change and returning the body to its normal set point.

Normal Body Temperature

A primary example of homeostasis maintained at approximately $98.6^{\circ}F$ or $37^{\circ}C$.

Buffers

Chemicals that resist sudden changes in $pH$ by accepting or releasing hydrogen ions ($H^+$).

pH Scale

A measurement of acidity or alkalinity where $pH\,7$ is neutral, less than $7$ is acidic, and greater than $7$ is basic (alkaline).

Carbohydrates

The primary source of quick energy for the body, including examples like glucose, glycogen, and starch.

Lipids

Molecules used for long-term energy storage, cell membranes, hormone production, insulation, and protection.

Proteins

Molecules made of amino acids that build body structures, act as enzymes, transport substances, and serve as hormones or antibodies.

Nucleic Acids

Molecules such as DNA and RNA that store genetic information.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The cell's primary energy source; energy is released when it converts to $ADP + Phosphate\,(P)$.

Cellular Respiration

The process that converts glucose into ATP, represented by the equation $\text{Glucose} + \text{Oxygen} \rightarrow \text{Carbon Dioxide} + \text{Water} + \text{ATP}$.

Ribosomes

Organelles responsible for protein synthesis, found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Lysosomes

Organelles containing digestive enzymes used to break down bacteria, digest damaged organelles, and recycle cellular components.

Plasma Membrane

A structure made of a phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and cholesterol that protects the cell and controls movement of substances.

Interphase

The longest phase of the cell cycle, which includes $G1$ (growth), $S$ (DNA replication), and $G2$ (preparation for mitosis).

Mitosis

A process of cell division that produces two genetically identical diploid cells through four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis

A process occuring in the ovaries and testes that produces four genetically unique haploid gametes for sexual reproduction.

Ectoderm

The germ layer that forms the nervous system, skin, hair, and nails.

Mesoderm

The germ layer that forms muscle, bone, the heart, blood, and kidneys.

Endoderm

The germ layer that forms the digestive tract, liver, pancreas, and the respiratory tract lining.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue types specialized for protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration, found in skin, glands, and organ linings.

Connective Tissue

Tissue that supports and binds structures, including bone, blood, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and adipose tissue.

Endocrine Glands

Glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream, such as the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and pancreas.

Exocrine Glands

Glands that release secretions through ducts, such as sweat glands, salivary glands, and oil glands.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration without the requirement of energy.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward the area with higher solute concentration.

Hypertonic

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing water to leave the cell and the cell to shrink (crenation).

Hypotonic

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to enter the cell and the cell to swell or lyse.

Neurons

Specialized cells that transmit electrical signals, composed of dendrites, a cell body, an axon, and axon terminals.

Neuroglia (Glial Cells)

Cells that support, protect, and nourish neurons, including Schwann cells, astrocytes, satellite cells, and ependymal cells.

Schwann Cells

Cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to speed nerve impulse conduction.

Action Potential

An electrical signal that follows the all-or-none principle, moving from resting potential ($-70\,mV$) through depolarization ($Na^+$ enters) and repolarization ($K^+$ leaves).

Threshold

The minimum stimulus required to trigger an action potential.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that coordinates balance, posture, and fine motor movements.

Reflex Arc

A rapid automatic response that usually bypasses the brain, involving a stimulus, sensory neuron, spinal cord, and motor neuron.

Blind Spot

The location where the optic nerve exits the retina, containing no photoreceptors.

Cochlea

The part of the inner ear responsible for hearing, containing the Organ of Corti and hair cells.

Hypothalamus

Brain structure that links the nervous and endocrine systems and controls the pituitary gland through releasing and inhibiting hormones.

Insulin

A hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells that lowers blood glucose by helping cells absorb glucose.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that increases water reabsorption by the kidneys and decreases urine output.

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

The junction where a motor neuron communicates with a skeletal muscle fiber using the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh).

Capillaries

The smallest blood vessels where the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and waste products occurs between blood and tissues.

Hematocrit

A measure of the percentage of blood volume made up of red blood cells, used to evaluate anemia, dehydration, or polycythemia.

Inflammation

A protective response to injury with five signs: redness (rubor), heat (calor), swelling (tumor), pain (dolor), and loss of function (functio laesa).

Alveoli

The microscopic sites within the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange occurs.

Nephron

The microscopic functional unit of the kidney that performs filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A hormone produced by the kidneys when oxygen levels are low to stimulate the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

Peristalsis

Coordinated waves of smooth muscle contraction that move food through the digestive tract.

Liver

An organ that produces bile, detoxifies blood, stores glycogen, and converts ammonia into urea.

Intrinsic Factor

A substance produced by parietal cells in the stomach required for the absorption of Vitamin B12.

Epididymis

The site where sperm mature, gain motility, and are stored until ejaculation.

Corpus Luteum

The structure formed from a ruptured follicle that secretes progesterone to maintain the uterine lining.

Placenta

The structure that allows for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between maternal and fetal circulation without their blood directly mixing.

hCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

The hormone that maintains the corpus luteum early in pregnancy.

Oxytocin

The hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk ejection ('let-down') after birth.