Topic 2: General theories on learning and acquisition of a foreign language. The concept of interlanguaeg. The treatment of error.

The aim of this topic is

to provide a thorough account of what is known about the way people learn languages.

In order to provide a thorough account of what is known about the way people learn languages,

a detailed account of the various theories concerning second language acquisition will be provided.

An analysis will then be offered of the concept of interlanguage and its significance in the field of second language learning, and finally,

the treatment of error will be analysed from various perspectives, with some useful didactic observations.

Initial second language acquisition (SLA) studies were based on a variety of perspectives:

• Linguistic

• Sociolinguistic

• Psycholinguistic

• Neurolinguistic

• Educational etc.

All of the perspectives (initial SLA studies) claimed that

an adequate model of SLA was impossible without a coherent theory from these sources.

In his 1933 work Language, Bloomfield, following a behaviourist approach to language learning, stated that

language consists of externally conditioned habits and that language learning consists of the acquisition of new habits.

Who stated that language consists of externally conditioned habits and that language learning consists of the acquisition of new habits?

Bloomfield in his 1933 work Language

Similar to Bloomfield, Skinner in Verbal Behavior (1957) argues that

all learning is considered to be the result of habit formation through imitation, positive reinforcement and practice.

Who argued that all learning is considered to be the result of habit formation through imitation, positive reinforcement and practice?

Skinner in Verbal Behaviour (1957)

Language (Bloomfield) YEAR

1933

Verbal Behaviour (Skinner) YEAR

1957

Behaviourism is usually connected to

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

Lado (1957) assumes that

the transferred L1 habits either facilitate or inhibit the process of L2 habit formation, where there are similarities the learner will acquire easily, but where there are differences it will be difficult.

Who assumed that the transfered L1 habits either facilitate or inhibit the process of L2 habit formation?

Lado in 1957

CAH (Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis) also posed some theoretical problems

• Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures (1957) stated that a speaker of a language can produce and understand an infinite number of well-formed utterances. Thus, language competence could not possibly be explained by a model based on imitation and habit formation.

• CAH could not explain developmental errors such as overgeneralisation, e.g. “goed” where a rule is incorrectly applied where it does not apply

Chosmky’s Syntactic Structures (1957) stated that

a speaker of a language can produce and understand an infinite number of well-formed utterances.

The fact that a speaker can produce and understand an infinite number of well-formed utterances means that

language competence could not possibly be explained by a model based on imitation and habit formation.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) could not explain

developmental errors such as overgeneralisation, e.g. “goed” where a rule is incorrectly applied in situations where it does not apply.

In addition, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) could not explain developmental errors such as overgeneralization, e.g. “goed” where

a rule is incorrectly applied in situations where it does not apply.

Chomsky also introduced new concepts including

• The distinction between performance and competence

• The existence of Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

• Universal Grammar (UG)

Corder’s article

The significance of learners’ errors (1967)

Corder’s article “The significance of learners’ errors” (1967)

introduced the study of systematic errors or error analysis as a way to understand language learning.

Who developed the concept of transitional competence?

Corder

Corder developed the concept of transitional competence, which suggests that

second language (L2) learners develop their own linguistic system which constantly adjusts as new L2 knowledge is acquired.

Similar to Corder, Nemser stated that

L2 learners progress by means of approximate systems.

Who did state that L2 learners progress by means of approximate systems?

Nemser

Who defined the term of interlanguage?

Selinker in 1972

The term of interlanguage was defined by Selinker (1972) as

the set of rules that a particular learner has acquired at a particular stage of learning.

The interlanguage (IL) system is

a unique grammar not belonging to either the source language or the target language (TL). It is usually thought as a characteristic only of adult second language learners.

A particular learner’s IL system is formed by

• the L2 rules he has already acquired

• and the rules he is checking for validation or rejection.

What is usually thought as a characteristic only of adult second language learners?

Interlanguage (IL)

According to Selinker (1972), there are five psycholinguistic processes that influence the development of interlanguage:

1. Native language transfer

2. Overgeneralization of target language rules

3. Transfer of training

4. Strategies of communication

5. And strategies of learning.

Finally, the term fossilization emerged

in order to explain the process of deviation from native speakers' proficiency.

What term emerged in order to explain the process of deviation from native speakers’ proficiency?

Fossilization

Fossilization refers to

linguistic structures that diverge from target language norms and become permanently fixed, regardless of the learner’s exposure to the language or corrective feedback received.

Three approaches to Sociolinguistics must be considered here:

1. The Labovian paradigm

2. Speech accommodation theory

3. and attitudes and motivation.

The Labovian paradigm (sociolinguistics)

William Labov (1972), one of the most influential figures in sociolinguistics, demonstrated that language varies systematically based on a speaker’s social characteristics.

What did William Labov demonstrate in 1972?

that language varies systematically based on speakers’ social characteristics.

Labov’s main ideas (The Labovian paradigm) include:

• Style shifting: People modify their language in order to converge or diverge with their interlocutors.

• The vernacular: it is the default way a person speaks when they are not consciously adjusting their style

• Formality is a determinant factor

Style Shifting (The Labovian paradigm)

People modify their language in order to converge or diverge with their interlocutors

The vernacular (The Labovian paradigm)

It is the default way a person speaks when they are not consciously adjusting their style.

Formality (The Labovian paradigm)

is a determinant factor in style shifting.

Speech accommodation theory (sociolinguistics)

Giles & Smith (1979) proposed it, which suggests that people adjust their speech depending on their interlocutors.

This can occur through convergence, where speakers adjust their speech to resemble that of their interlocutors or through divergence, where they modify their speech to make it less similar.

Who proposed the speech accommodation theory?

Giles & Smith in 1979

What does the speech accommodation theory suggest?

that people adjust their speech depending on their interlocutors. This can occur through convergence or through divergence.

Convergence (speech accommodation theory)

Speakers adjust their speech to resemble that of their interlocutors

Divergence (speech accommodation theory)

Speakers modify their speech to make it less similar to their interlocutors.

Attitude and motivation (sociolinguistics)

Attitude is generally linked to motivation in second language learning.

Lambert & Lambert (1964) described the components of attitude:

1. Cognitive (beliefs)

2. Affective (positive or negative feelings)

3. And conative (behavioural intentions).

   Motivation, on the other hand, is accepted as the most powerful predictor of achievement in learning. For instance, Intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation.

Cognitive (attitudes and emotions)

beliefs

Who described the components of attitude?

Lambert & Lambert (1964)

Components of attitude

1. Cognitive (beliefs)

2. Affective (positive or negative feelings)

3. Conative (behavioural intentions)

Affective (attitudes and emotions)

Positive or negative feeling

Conative (attitudes and emotions)

Behavioural intentions

Motivation (attitudes and motivation)

is accepted as the most powerful predictor of achievement in learning.

For instance, Intrinsic motivation, which is an internal desire to accomplish a goal, and extrinsic motivation, which comes from external rewards and praise.

Intrinsic motivation (attitudes and motivation)

is an internal desire to accomplish a goal

Extrinsic motivation (attitudes and motivation)

comes from external rewards and praise. 

Neurolinguistics

focuses on how the brain processes language.

(Neurolinguistics) Two important objectives have been:

1. The establishment of hemisphere dominance

2. and, finding a critical age in language learning.

Hemisphere dominance (Neurolinguistics)

Some language components are processed by the left hemisphere, while other components are processed by the right hemisphere.

In Second language learning, during the first phases of the process,

• children have shown right hemisphere dominance,

• while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.

(hemisphere dominance) In Second Language Learning, during the first phases of the process

• children have shown right hemisphere dominance,

• while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.

Who has shown right hemisphere dominance during the first phases of the process (in SLL)?

Children

Who has shown more left activity during the first phases of the process (in SLL)?

Adults

(Hemisphere dominance) Informal language learning is related to

right hemisphere activity

(Hemisphere dominance) Formal language learning is related to

left hemisphere activity

E.g. Formal learning

classroom instruction

Informal language learning vs formal learning

Informal language learning is related to right hemisphere activity, while the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning, e.g. classroom instruction.

What type of language learning is related to right hemisphere activity?

Informal language learning

What type of language learning is related to left hemisphere activity?

Formal learning, e.g. classroom instruction

Age hypothesis (Neurolinguistics)

It is the claim that there is an optimal period for language acquisition, ending at puberty (9-12 years of age), characterised by neural plasticity. 

(Age hypothesis) However, empirical evidence supports that older learners achieve higher levels of language proficiency than younger learners

during the initial stages of learning and adults are capable of acquiring phonology to a native-like proficiency.

(Age hypothesis) What does empirical evidence support?

• Older learners achieve higher levels of language proficiency than younger learners during the initial stages of learning

• Adults are capable of acquiring phonology to a native-like proficiency

(A theory of SLA) Krashen (1982) proposed a theory of second language acquisition (SLA) based on five key hypothesis:

1. The Acquisition-learning hypothesis

2. The Monitor Hypothesis

3. The natural order Hypothesis

4. The input hypothesis

5. The affective filter hypothesis

(A theory of SLA) The acquisition-learning hypothesis

Krashen distinguishes between two ways of gaining proficiency in a second language: language acquisition and language learning. Krashen considers acquisition the more important of the two.

(A theory of SLA) The monitor hypothesis

It states that conscious learning monitors the process, controlling and correcting the linguistic production of the learnt system.

Once a student has conscious knowledge of grammatical structures, they are able to self-monitor oral and written language.

(A theory of SLA) The natural order hypothesis

It establishes that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order. Learners make mistakes during the acquisition of a language, independently from the speaker’s mother tongue, age or subskills.

(A theory of SLA) The input hypothesis

This hypothesis holds that information is better understood when it is close to the learner’s real level, but that the best conditions are given when the information is a bit over the current knowledge of the learner (i + 1).

Therefore, language acquisition occurs when learners receive comprehensible input. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development supports this hypothesis.

(A theory of SLA) The affective filter hypothesis

It affirms that affective variables such as attitude, motivation or anxiety, among others, may facilitate or hamper the process by which linguistic data are stored in the human memory.

Krashen differentiates low affective filter and high affective filter.

(The acquisition-learning hypothesis) Acquisition

is defined as the subconscious process through which children develop skills in their mother tongue.

(The acquisition-learning hypothesis) Learning

involves explicit learning, where learners consciously internalise the rules of the language.

What does conscious learning do? (the monitor hypothesis)

It monitors the process, controlling and correcting linguistic production of the learnt system. Once a student has conscious knowledge of grammatical structures, they are able to self-monitor oral and written language.

(the monitor hypothesis) Once a student has conscious knowledge of grammatical structures,

they are able to self-monitor oral and written language.

(The natural order hypothesis) Learners make mistakes during the acquisition of a language,

independently from the speaker’s mother tongue, age or subskills.

(The input hypothesis) Information is better understood when it is close to the learner’s real level, but that the best conditions are given when

the information is a bit over the current knowledge of the learner (i + 1).

Who supports the input hypothesis?

Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

(The affective filter hypothesis) Krashen differentiates:

• Low affective filter: Those who feel relaxed, motivated and confident are more receptive to comprehensive input.

• High affective filter: those who experience anxiety, low self-esteem or lack of motivation tend to block input, preventing effective language learning

Learners with a low affective filter (The affective filter hypothesis)

those who feel relaxed, motivated and confident - are more receptive to comprehensible input.

Learners with a high affective filter (The affective filter hypothesis)

Those who experience anxiety, low self-esteem or lack of motivation – tend to block input, preventing effective language learning.

(Interlanguage) The concept of interlanguage refers to

the evolving language system that learners develop when acquiring a second language (L2).

The concept of interlanguage is related to

• The theories of learner variety

• and hypothesis testing.

Theory of learner variety (Interlanguage)

The notion of learner variety (LV) refers to a coherent linguistic system produced by a language learner. It has its own rules and patterns that the learner follows.

Hypothesis testing (interlanguage)

Language learning involves hypothesis testing, where learners form and test assumptions about the target language (TL).

Learner variety (LV) refers to

a coherent linguistic system produced by a language learner. It has its own rules and patterns that the learner follows.

Learner variety (LV) is based on two things:

1. The rules the learner has already acquired

2. and the critical rules they are still in the process of learning.

(Hypothesis testing) This process follow some steps

1. Identify a feature of the TL (by transfer or generalisation)

2. Form a hypothesis

3. Test the hypothesis by means of the productive skills

4. Receive feedback by means of the receptive skills

5. Decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis

What is the first step in hypothesis testing?

Identify a feature of the target language (TL) by transfer or generalisation

What is the last step in hypothesis testing?

Decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis

What is the second step in hypothesis testing?

Form a hypothesis

What is the third step in hypothesis testing?

Test the hypothesis by means of the productive skills

What is the fourth step in hypothesis testing?

Receive feedback by means of the receptive skills

Test the hypothesis by means of the __________ skills

productive