Exam 2

Lanthanide Contraction

f block fits actually in between the s block and d block, which is why the 4d and 5d metals are similar in size.

Lewis Acid

electron pair acceptor

ex: metal in the complex compound

Lewis Base

electron pair donor

ex: ligand

Chelating ligands

ligands that have more than one atom that have lone pairs and can bind to the metal ion

ex: ethylenediamine

Coordination number

number of ligands attached to the central metal ion

CO

carbonylN

NO

nitrosylN

NO₂

nitro

Structural isomers

different bonding

Linkage isomers

different binding site on the ligand (a.k.a. chelating)

Coordination isomers

different ligands in complex

ex: [Cr(NH₃)₅Br]Cl vs. [Cr(NH₃)₅Cl]Br

Geometric isomers

different arrangement of ligands around central atom

ex: cis and trans

Optical isomers

mirror images

Chiral

mirror images that cannot be put on top of each other

4 different ligands

chiral

<3 different ligands

achiral

Crystal Field Theory

ligands are negative point charges

metal-ligand bonds are ionic

Degenerate orbitals

orbitals that have the same energy level

Crystal Field splitting

the energy difference between split d-orbitals in a crystal field due to ligand interaction.

Which split orbitals raise the energy of the d orbitals by a lot?

d_x²-y² and d_z²

interacts stronger with the ligands (aligns on top of them)

Which split orbitals raise the energy of the d orbitals by only a little?

d_xy, d_yz, and d_xz interact less strongly with the ligands

Tetrahedral splitting

high spin and weak field always

Octahedral splitting, strong field

low spin and more energy

Octahedral splitting, weak field

high spin and less energy

low spin

pair up first (closer to 0)

high spin

promote first (more ± 1/2)

Ligand Field Theory

Based off crystal field theory but adds that metal-ligand bonding is actually covalent, and uses molecular orbital theory (sigma and pi bonds)

Organic molecules

compounds containing carbon

Alkanes

saturated hydrocarbon

saturated - single bonds

hydrocarbon - H and C only

Polarity and boiling point of alkanes

• non polar

• low boiling point, increases as it gets bigger

  • LDF only

Suffix for alkanes

-ane

Combustion reaction of alkanes

add O₂, breaks the bonds

Halogenation reaction of alkanes

a.k.a., substitution reaction, it replaces an H with a halogen (ex: Cl)

Dehydrogenation reaction of alkanes

takes away H ions and creates double bond

Alkenes and Alkynes

unsaturated hydrocarbons

• unsaturated = double bonds

Suffix of alkene

-ene

Suffix of alkynes

-yne

Type of bond of an alkene

double

Type of bond of an alkyne

triple bond

Addition reaction of alkenes/alkynes

addition of H₂ breaks double bond and creates a new single bond

Aromatic hydrocarbons

rings where there is delocalization of pi bonds in the ring (resonances)

Suffix of aromatic hydrocarbons

-benzene

Substitution reaction of aromatic rings

adding a halogen on the ring, replaces an H

Alcohol

hydrocarbon with an OH group on the end

Boiling point and solubility of alcohols

• hydrogen bonding = high boiling point

• high solubility in water

Suffix of alcohols

-ol

Bonding and solubility of Aldehydes

• can H-bond with others but not to itself

• soluble but not as much as alcohols or carboxylic acids

Suffix for aldehydes

-al

Aldehyde

• on the end

• double bonded O and an H to the carbon

Synthesis of aldehyde

oxidation of a primary alcohol

Ketones

• double bonded O on the carbon, with two R groups bonded to the carbon

Bonding and solubility of ketones

• not as soluble as alcohols and acids

• cannot H-bond to itself but can to water

Suffix for ketones

-one

Synthesis of ketones

oxidation of secondary alcohols

Carboxylic Acid

Double bonded O to carbon with one R group and one OH group

Bonding and solubility of carboxylic acid

• can H-bond to itself and others

• good solubility in water

• also has higher boiling point than alcohols

Suffix for Carboxylic Acids

“-oic acid”

Synthesis of carboxylic acids

oxidation of aldehyde

(aldehyde is synthesized by oxidizing primary alcohol)

Esters

double bonded O to the carbon with one oxygen attached and a R group

Bonding and solubility of esters

• cannot H-bond with other esters

• not as soluble in water as alcohols or acids

• Boiling point is lower than alcohols and acids but higher than alkane

Synthesis of Esters

condensation of carboxylic acids and alcohol

Suffix for Esters

1. if the parent molecule is a carboxylic acid, replace “-oic acid” with “oate”

   1. if the parent molecule is an alcohol, replace “ol” with “yl”

Alkyl Halides / Haloalkanes

carbon single bonded with F, Br, Cl, or I

Amines

carbon bonded to an N

Protein

polymers made from amino acids that are linked by amide (peptide) bonds

Synthesis of proteins

condensation reaction between amino acids

Non polar amino acids

R group is made of only C and H (sometimes S), has no charge

Polar amino acids

R group made of C,H,O,N, has polarity

Electrically charged amino acids

has a charge (+/-) on R group

Primary structure of proteins

a sequence (chain) of amino acids that are formed by amide (peptide) bonds

Secondary structure of proteins

H-bonds between and within the chains of amino acids

creates alpha helices and beta pleated sheets

Tertiary structure of proteins

IMFs and/or covalent bonds between alpha helices and beta pleated sheets that made the 3D shape of proteins

Quaternary structure of proteins

multiple tertiary proteins

Nucleotides

building blocks of DNA/RNA

Carbohydrates

• general formula CH₂O

• energy source for cells

Monosaccharides

simple sugars with multiple OH groups

naming based on number of carbons

Disaccharides

2 covalently bonded monosaccharides

Polysaccharides

polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide/disaccharide units

Aldoses

monosaccharides with aldehyde group attached at the end

Ketoses

monosaccharides with ketone group attached usually to C2

Which structure of carbohydrates are more stable?

cyclized

Polymerization of monosaccharides

condensation reaction which creates the glycoside linkage

Sucrose

disaccharide made up of glucose and fructose that are linked by glycoside linkage

Lactose

disaccharide made up of galactose and glucose linked by glycoside linkage

Lactose intolerance

the inability to break glycoside linkages

Amylose

straight chain polymer

Glycogen

branched chain polymer

Polymerization and osmotic effects

It decreases the osmotic effects of the polymer