Psychology 5

Learning

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experiences

Behaviorism

A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such metal activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping

Two types of learning

Associative Learning
Observational Learning

Associative Learning

Learning that occurs when an organism makes an connection or an association between two events

Two parts of Associative Learning

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

When organisms learn the association between two stimuli, which help them anticipate events. The first stimuli is a neutral one that helps us anticipate the second one.
ex: neutral stimuli (the sound of toilet flushing) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (the pain of scalding hot water) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (panic)

Operant Conditioning

Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior

Pavlov's Studies Results

The unlearned part of classical conditioning is based on the fact that some stimuli automatically produce certain responses apart from any prior learning

4 Parts if Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Responses
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Responses

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

Unconditioned Responses

The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Are involuntary; they happen in response to a stimulus without conscious effort
In Pavlov’s experiment, the salivating in response to food was UR

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral stimuli that comes to elicit the conditioned response

Conditioned Responses

A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov's experiment with classical conditioning

Prior to conditioning
-Neutral stimulus (tone/or the ring of a bell) - orientation to sound but no response from the dog
-Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) which results in unconditioned response (salvation)
Conditioning
-neutral stimulus CS (tone)
-Unconditioned stimulus (food powder)
-Both of these result in conditioned response (salvation)
After Conditioning
-Conditioned stimulus (tone) - conditioned stimulus response (salvation)

Acquisition

The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired

Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

Extinction

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

Spontaneous Recovery

The process in classical conditioning by which conditioned responses can recur after a time delay without further conditioning

Classical Conditioning in Humans

Classical conditioning provides an explanation for fears.
- Baby Albert experience

Counterconditioning

A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
Therapists have used counterconditioning to break association between certain stimuli and positive feeling

Aversive Conditioning

- A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus

Classical Conditioning and the placebo effect

Placebo effects are the observable change that cannot be explained by the effects of an actual treatment
-showed that placebo pills can influence the secretion of hormones if patients had previously experienced with a pill containing actual drugs that affected hormone secretion

Classical conditioning and the immune and Endocrine System

That classical conditioning can produce immunosuppression a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person’s ability to fight disease

Taste Adversion

a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea
-people who go through chemo would have a candy before it, so when they feel sick after the session, they are more likely to only feel sick to the taste of the candy instead of every food

Habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation

Albert Bandura's steps to observational learning

Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Reinforcement for the model (both positive and negative)

Biology and Learning

Animals can be conditioned to do natural tasks (i.e. circuses, fairs), but will have instinctive drift to revert to instinctive behaviors

Cultural Learning

We tend to learn certain abilities based on our cultural upbringing
open and fixed mindset

Operant Learning

Operant conditioning is when the consequences of a behavior changes the probability of the behavior’s occurrence.

respondent behavior

- a behavior that occurs in automatic response to a stimulus such as a nausea-producing drug, and later to a conditioned stimulus such as sweet water that is paired with the drug

Involuntary responses

- explains how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned

B.F Skinner

he developed the concept of operant conditioning

Laws of Effect

proposed by E.L. Thorndike
it states that behaviors with positive outcomes are strengthened while behavior with negative outcomes are weakened

Shaping

is rewarding close actions to the desired behavior, until the desired behavior is achieved
The rewards (reinforcements) can be either positive (giving a good stimulus) or negative (removing a bad stimulus)

Positive Reinforcement

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
Ex: dog is given food when they give a paw

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior
Ex: cleaning the garage to remove your dad’s nagging

Positive and Negative Reinforcements

Positive reinforcement means following a behavior with the addition of something and negative reinforcement means following a behavior with the removal of something

Avoidance Learning

an organism’s learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response

Learned Helplessness

through experiences with unavoidable aversive stimuli, an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes

Generalization (operant conditioning)

- Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
Ex: when a student gets good grades by studying psychology every night, they might apply that to history

Discrimination (Operant Conditioning)

responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
Ex: you go to a restaurant that has a “university student discount” sign in the front window and you enthusiastically flash your student ID with the expectation getting the reward of a reduced price meal.

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforce
Ex; if a soda machine you use frequently starts “eating your coins” you might stop using it but after several weeks, you might try again hoping it would work (this demonstrates spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning)

Continuous Reinforcement

in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, but when the reinforcement stops, extinction occurs takes place quickly

Partial Reinforcement

in which reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time, characterizes most life experiences

Schedules of Reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

4 Partial Reinforcement

fixed-ratio
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable interval

Fixed ratio

- Rewarded after a set number of behaviors

Variable ratio

- rewarded after a random number of behaviors

Fixed interval

When a behavior is rewarded after a fixed amount of time

Variable Interval

when a behavior is rewarded after a random amount of time

Applied Behavior Analysis

- the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
Ex: manager rewarding staff members with half day off if they meet particular work goal is employing this behavior analysis

E.C. Tolman

emphasized the purposiveness of behavior meaning it’s goal-directed

Latent Learning

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

Insight Learning

A form of problem-solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution

Biological Constraints on learning

Instinctive Drift
Preparedness

Instinctive drift

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with learning
Ex: Pigs were trained to pick up coins and put them in a piggy bank. But pigs started to shove it with their snout. What the pig do is rooting, an instinct that is used to uncover the edible root

Preparedness

The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
ex:

Psychological Constraints

Fixed-mindset
Growth mindset
(I think you guys know the meaning of this , if not- ur done)