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The processes of memory
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Memory retrieval
The process of recalling or accessing information stored in memory.
The different types of memory
Episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory.
Episodic memory
The memory of personal experiences and specific events, including contextual details like time and place.
Semantic memory
The memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world.
Procedural memory
Knowing how to perform tasks and activities, often without conscious awareness.
How memories are encoded
Converting sensory input into a format that can be stored in memory.
The structures of memory
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
The multi-store model of memory
The multi-store model consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory store
The initial stage of memory where sensory information is briefly retained. (high capacity, brief duration)
Short-term memory
Temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 15-30 seconds.
Long-term memory
A complex storage system that can retain information indefinitely, both in terms of duration and potentially limitless capacity.
What are the primacy and recency effects in recall?
Primacy effect refers to better recall of items presented at the beginning of a list, while recency effect refers to better recall of items presented at the end.
The effects of serial position
Recall accuracy is higher for items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.
Murdock’s serial position curve study
The study that demonstrated the primacy and recency effects by showing recall patterns in relation to item position in a list.
How is memory considered an active process?
Memory is considered an active process because it involves not just the passive storage of information but also the interpretation, reconstruction, and organization of memories upon retrieval.
The Theory of Reconstructive Memory
The Theory that memory retrieval is influenced by existing knowledge and beliefs, leading to potential distortions.
The concept of ‘effort after meaning’
The tendency to reconstruct memories to make sense of them, often adding context or details that were not originally present.
Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
The study that illustrated how cultural background influences memory, showing that participants altered the details of a story to fit their own experiences.
The factors affecting the accuracy of memory
Interference, context, and the formation of false memories.
Proactive interference
When older memories inhibit the retrieval of newer memories.
Retroactive interference
When new memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories.
Formation of false memories
Recollections of events that never occurred or distorted recollections of actual events, often influenced by misinformation and suggestive prompts.
What is sensation?
Sensation is the process of receiving and interpreting stimuli from the environment through sensory organs.
What is perception?
Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to understand the environment.
The difference between sensation and perception
Sensation refers to the initial detection of stimuli, while perception is the cognitive interpretation of those stimuli.
Visual cues
Visual cues are signals in visual stimuli that help the brain interpret depth, distance, and spatial relationships.
Monocular depth cues
Depth cues that can be perceived using one eye, such as height in plane, relative size, occlusion, and linear perspective.
Height in plane
A monocular depth cue where objects higher in the visual field are perceived as being further away.
Relative size
A monocular cue where larger objects are perceived as closer, while smaller objects are seen as further away.
Occlusion
A monocular depth cue where closer objects block the view of more distant objects.
Linear perspective
A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge at a distance, indicating depth.
Binocular depth cues
Depth cues that require both eyes to perceive, such as retinal disparity and convergence.
Retinal disparity
A binocular cue where the slightly different images from each eye help the brain determine depth.
Convergence
A binocular cue that refers to the inward angle of the eyes when focusing on a close object, indicating distance.
Gibson's direct theory of perception
The theory that perception is a direct result of sensory information, emphasizing the role of the environment and nature.
Role of motion parallax in everyday perception
Motion parallax is a cue that allows perception of depth based on the relative movement of objects as an observer moves.
Visual illusions
Visual illusions are misinterpretations of visual stimuli, leading to perception that differs from reality.
Explanations for visual illusions
Visual illusions can arise from misinterpreted depth cues and the brain's attempt to construct a coherent view of the world.
Examples of visual illusions
Common examples include the Müller-Lyer illusion, the Ponzo illusion, and the Ames room illusion.
Gregory's constructivist theory of perception
The theory that emphasizes the role of nurture and past experiences in the construction of perceptual reality.
How perception uses inferences from visual cues and past experience
Perception integrates visual cues and previous experiences to form a coherent understanding of the environment.
Factors affecting perception
Factors that can influence perception include perceptual set, culture, motivation, emotion, and expectation.
Perceptual set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by expectations and experiences.
Effects of culture on perception
Culture can shape how individuals interpret visual information and influence their perceptual sets.
Effects of motivation on perception
Motivation can affect how we perceive stimuli, prioritizing certain aspects based on our needs or desires.
Effects of emotion on perception
Emotions can influence perception by altering how stimuli are interpreted, often enhancing or diminishing certain aspects.
Effects of expectation on perception
Expectations can shape perception by leading individuals to focus on certain cues while ignoring others.
The Gilchrist and Nesberg study of motivation
A study demonstrating that hunger can alter perception, as participants rated the brightness of food-related stimuli differently when hungry.
The Bruner and Minturn study of perceptual set
A study that showed how expectations can influence perception, where participants perceived ambiguous figures differently based on context.
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