Edexcel A-Level History: South Africa Theme 4 - The end of apartheid and the creation of the 'rainbow nation'

Township revolt (1984-87)

The black residential areas became increasingly tempestuous over the course of the 80s. The government sanctions to try contain and suppress violence often served to antagonise people further.

Community Council Act

1977; African people in cities were offered new urban black council. The state hope that the black councillors would be able to absorb and diffuse discontent.

The United Democratic Front

The unified anti-apartheid coalition created in 1983 from the major black and white opposition groups. They mobilised against Botha's measures and argues for a fully democratic South Africa.

Protest strategies

The dynamic of protest shifted in the later months of 1984, violent tactics became increasingly attractive.

Vaal Triangle Uprising

3 September 1984 - on the day that the tricameral parliament opened in Cape Town. Councillors were killed in Sharpville and Sebokeng. The Vaal Civic Association had initially led the protest but lost control.

'Make this country ungovernable'

In October 1984, the ANC in exile issued this call. In 1985, the ANC called for a people's war and made more systematic attempts to send MK cadres into South Africa.

Alexandra revolt

Broke out in early 1986, after a month of tension, and became known as the Six Day War. Triggered when Michael Diradeng was shot by a security guard. In retaliation, a policeman was stabbed.

Necklacing

A punishment where discarded car tires filled with petrol were forced over the heads of spies/informers were lit.

Winnie Mandela

She had been harrased and detained by police over a long period of time

Rural rebellion

The towns and rural high schools of the Eastern Cape were also centres of protest and recruitment routes for MK.

Government response to Alexandra

In June 1985, Botha declared a state of emergency and sent troops into the townships. Houses of known activists were burnt, at least one with people inside. Anyone suspected of resistance was arrested. Over 25,000 were detained nationally over the next year.

Joint Management Committee.

Established after the Alexandra uprising. Botha dispened black councils.

ARMSCOR

Set up to bypass world boycott arms sales to South Africa. it developed the country's own arms industries.

State suppression

The NP repressed black political protest. Common police tactics included mass arrests, imprisonment and banning order

Conflict in the homelands

Opposition to the UDF was strongest in the homeland of ZwaZulu and parts of Natal where the Inkatha Freedom Party was entrenched.

Why did the National Party begin negotiations in 1985-89?

By the mid-1980s the National Party leadership, realising that white supremacy was under significant threat. They tried to suppress lack insurrection and find routes for comprise to protect white interests.

Botha's reform

By 1986, the government had softened many aspects of apartheid and the pass laws were largely abandoned. Racial restrictions on the labour force were partly relaxed.

End of petty apartheid

Mixed Marriages of 1949 repealed in '85. Local authorities were encouraged to desegregate parks and public amenities. Pass laws were abolished in 1986.

Tricameral Parliament

1984; 178 whites, 85 coloureds, 45 Indians

Total strategy

Aimed to use reform in order to appease criticism and mounting unrest. He hoped to win support within South Africa and counter the threat beyond its borders.

Taking total strategy beyond the borders

SA engaged in civil wars in Angola and Mozambique. Used parcel bombs. Raided ANC bases. Lesotho 1983 - killed 42 people. Botswana 1985 - 12 killed

International pressure and economic crisis

In 1985, American banks refused to renew South Africa's loans and the currency slumped after investor lost faith in Botha.

Gavin Relly, the chairman of Anglo-American, led white SA businessmen to meet the ANC.

The effect of the state of emergency

By the late 1980s, the government couldn't fully control political developments in the homelands/townships. But the AAM didn't have the power to threaten white dominance in the short term. Whites also not in daily danger - conflict restricted geographically to townships.

To what extent did political negotiations, 1989-91, end in compromise?

In '89, the system of apartheid was still in place but it was in certain respects crumbling and the gov couldn't easily contain political opposition. The country was deeply divided and attempts to avoid further polarization/violence was going to need compromises on all sides.

De Klerk's new course

Promised a real end to apartheid and power sharing between the different racial groups - but not integration as such. It recognised the need to talk to opposition groups.

Significance of Mandela's release

Released on 11 feb 1990 after 27 years in captivity. While others were also freed, his release was significant in the sense of his fame and symbolism as the victim of oppression in |South Africa

People hoped he was the one leader with charisma and dignity to facilitate a peaceful transition

He met government officials regularly, learning to trust each other. He first met de Klerk in December 1989, both agreeing to work for a settlement.

The unbanning political parties

Feb 1990; facilitated democratic elections once a settlement was reached. However, unbanning in itself had little effect on the violence and turmoil into which the country had descended.

It had little effect on political parties being ready fight elections. The ANC had little formal political organisation within South Africa.

Problems for the ANC

Many grassroots member had participated n violence and now it was difficult to control them.

The ANC had been in exile for so long that it lacked internal organisation and administrative structures.

In August 1990, the ANC renounced violence.

Reasons for unrest and violence

- Many Africans had given up their education for rebellion during the 1980s and early 1990s and felt too unskilled to manage in a future South Africa.

- Many Africans remained suspicious of de Klerk — his party and government was still that associated with apartheid.

- There was a new mix — violent white groups and the creation of Inkhata, both of whom sought to maintain the status quo.

- The military wing of the PAC, the African People's Liberation Army, targeted whites as well as black opponents: they lost some support when in August 1993 they brutally murdered an American aid worker.

Role of Inkatha

Formed in 1990 by Chief Buthelezi. He was prepared to work with government officials and saw his influence fall with the unbanning of other groups. His party began to attack those sympathetic to the ANC.

White extremist reaction

Many whites opposed changes taking place. The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging threatened violence and committed bombings and acts of terrorism.

It sought to prevent negotiations by storming the hall were meetings were held. It also sought an independent white homeland.

Growth in poor whites

Many whites suffered economically with the appearance of more skilled non-whites in the workforces and the dismantling of an apartheid system which protected their jobs.

In 1991, hunger relief agencies were estimated to support over 20,000 whites.

Dismantling of apartheid

October 1990, the Separate Amenities Act was repealed, so segregation became illegal

The repeal of such apartheid measures which remained were facilitated by an Act of Parliament in June 1991.

CODESA 1

December 1991; incorporated a very wide range of political groupings. The PAC and Inkatha refused to attend: negotiations were bad-tempered among those who did.

Declaration of Intent

A statement commiting the government to reform. It enabled de Klerk to seek a referendum,held in March '92 among white voters, to see whether they supported the reform process: 69% did.

CODESA 2

Re-assembled in May 1992 but broke down because violence undermined negotiations. June 1992 residents in a Vaal triangle township of Boipatong were massacred by hotel dwellers.

Record of Understanding

An agreement signed by de Klerk and Mandela to avoid a civil war. They agreed to try to reduce violence and resume constitutional negotiations.

- Release of all political prisoners.

- A banning of traditional weapons such as pangas which many people carried openly.

Nationalist divisions

Many whites naturally feared for the future and many had already lost their livelihoods:

- They were concerned for their safety in the vent of an African black backlash

- Many feared as Africans became more skilled and could compete openly for jobs

- Many relied on the bureaucracy of apartheid r the security forces for employment.

Continued violence

- On 17 June 1992, Inkhata members killed 46 suspected ANC supporters in Boipatong. It was after this that Mandela suspended negotiations and supported mass protests which brought South Africa to a halt.

- On 7 September 1992, up to 100,000 ANC supporters marched to Bisho, the capital of Ciskei, whose leaders wished to maintain independence. Ciskei forces opened fire, killing 30 people.

- On 10 April 1993, the charismatic leader of MK, Chris Hani, was murdered by a white extremist.

Constitutional agreement

- South Africa would be divided into nine provinces, each with its own elected government and civil service.

- A Bill of Rights would be protected by a Constitutional Court. The new system could only be amended by two-thirds majority of the popular vote.

- Guaranteed power sharing for five years: while the president would come from the leading party, the deputy president could come from any party with over 20 per cent of the vote and any party with more than 5 per cent could have a minister appointed.

Multi-racial elections

26 April 1994:

- ANC won 62.%

- NP won 20.5%

- Inkatha won 10.5%

- PAC won 1.25%

1999 elections

ANC became the main political party in SA, maintaining its vision of multi-racialism. The NP collapsed with only 28 seats.