DEVPSY C9-10

Life expectancy

Average number of years that members of a population (or species) live

Lifespan

Greatest age reached by any member of a given population (or species); For humans, the lifespan is 120-125

Young–old (65-84)

Good health, social engagement, cognitive functioning

Oldest-old (85- 99)

Increased health problems, care needs

Centenarians (100+)

Often in good health until 90s, rapid terminal decline close to death

Programmed theories

Follow a biological timetable

Programmed longevity

Genes promote or decrease longevity

Cellular clock theory

Cells lose ability to reproduce; Declines in immune system functioning

Hormonal stress theory

Hypothalamus doesn’t work as effectively, leading to metabolic problems

Telomeres

Sequences of DNA at ends of chromosomes; As cells reproduce, telomeres get shorter

When telomeres get too short, the cell may

Turn itself off (cellular senescence), Die (apoptosis), Continue to divide and become abnormal (like in cancer)

Metabolic stress

Body’s life-sustaining activities

Innate immune system

Skin, mucous membranes, cough reflex, stomach acid, and specialized cells that alert the body of an impending threat With age these cells lose their ability to communicate

Adaptive immune system

Tonsils, spleen, bone marrow, thymus, circulatory system and the lymphatic system that work to produce and transport T cells; With age we produce fewer T cells

Hormonal stress theory

Hypothalamus doesn’t regulate hormones as well; Linked to excess of the stress hormone cortisol; The more stress we experience, the more cortisol released; Related to increased development of diabetes, thyroid problems, osteoporosis, and orthostatic hypotension

Damage/error theories

DNA damage due to increased age, exposure to harmful agents (UV radiation, hydrocarbons)

Damage to mitochondria

Uses oxygen to produce energy from food; Generates less energy for cell, leading to cell death

Free radicals

Oxygen molecules missing an electron

Free radical theory

Create instability in surrounding molecules by taking electrons from them; May cause damage in cells and tissue (cancer, cataracts)

After age 30

people tend to lose lean tissue; Reduces the amount of water in your body; Bones lose some minerals and become less dense (Early stages – Osteopenia, Later stages – Osteoporosis);

Inadequate calories/protein to sustain muscle mass

Leads to weakness and loss of stamina and mobility; Increases frailty and likelihood of falls and fractures

Height loss

related to changes in bones, muscles, and joints

Cataracts

Clouding of the lens of the eye

Macular degeneration

Center of retina deteriorates; Loss of central vision

Glaucoma

Fluid buildup in eye damages optic nerve; Loss of peripheral vision

Presbycusis

Gradual loss of hearing in late adulthood

Tinnitus

Ringing, hissing, or roaring sound in the ears

Balance problems

caused by decline in inner ear functioning

Presbyosmia

Loss of smell due to aging; Produces most changes in sense of taste; Decrease in olfactory receptor neurons; Could indicate other neurological conditions; Related to quality of diet

Heart disease

Age-related changes increase risk of heart disease

Stiffening blood vessels and valves

may cause leaks or pumping problems; Increased atherosclerosis and risk of heart attack or stroke

Osteoarthritis

Cartilage on/between bones wears way; Bone rubs against bone, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness; May result in chronic pain and loss of joint functioning; Almost half of adults with arthritis have mobility limitations; Pain and limitations can cause depression and anxiety; Risk factors- Genetics, obesity, age, previous injury

Osteoporosis

Bones very fragile, break easily; Fractures can lead to permanent disability or death Kyphosis

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Progressive lung disease in which the airways become damaged, making it difficult to breathe; Develops slowly, may be attributed to age or lack of exercise No cure; treatments aim at slowing further damage; Exposure to tobacco smoke is most common cause; Recessive genetic condition responsible for 1 in several thousand cases

Shingles

Caused by reactivation of chicken pox virus; Risk increases with age due to immune system decline; Pain, burning, rash, blisters; May leave scars or cause blindness if spreads to eye

Post-herpetic neuralgia

Pain lasting after blisters clear up; Can interfere with daily activities

Parkinson’s disease

Caused by deterioration of substantia nigra; Decreased dopamine in brain; Characterized by motor tremors, loss of balance, poor coordination, rigidity, and difficulty moving; Combination of genetic and environmental factors (especially brain injury)

Advanced sleep phase syndrome

Go to bed earlier and get up earlier; Caused by circadian rhythm changes

Insomnia

Trouble falling asleep and staying asleep

Sleep apnea

Repeated short pauses in breathing during sleep

Restless legs syndrome

Tingling, crawling feeling in legs

Periodic limb movement disorder

People to jerk and kick their legs every 20 to 40 seconds during sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder

Muscles move during REM sleep, and sleep is disrupted

Working memory (Late adulthood)

Central executive most negatively affected by age; Difficulty allocating cognitive resources; Difficulty monitoring effectiveness of cognitive strategies; Learning two new tasks simultaneously is difficult; Other types of working memory tasks (e.g., digit span) aren’t as affected

Long-term memory (Late adulthood)

Episodic memory shows greater age-related declines than semantic memory; Require recall of event and timeline; Older adults often outperform younger adults on semantic tasks But more tip-of-the-tongue events; Implicit (procedural) memory shows few declines with age

Prospective memory

Remembering things we need to do in the future

Time-based Prospective memory

Remembering to do something at future time

Event-based Prospective memory

Remember to do something when a certain event occurs

The “age advantage”

Older adults can use knowledge or experience to compensate; Cognitive activity often more efficient; Better decision making

Attention

Affected by changes in sensory functioning and speed of information processing; Older adults less able to selectively focus and ignore distractors; Older adults have greater difficulty shifting attention

Reasons for age-related cognitive differences

processing speed theory, inhibition theory, directed forgetting

Processing speed theory

Slowing nervous system affects ability to process information; When speed is not a factor, few age-related differences

Inhibition theory

Older adults have difficulty suppressing irrelevant information

Directed forgetting

Ask people to forget or ignore certain information Older adults do more poorly at directed forgetting tasks

Mechanics of intelligence

Basic information processing; Dependent on brain functioning and decline with age; Similar to fluid intelligence

Pragmatics of intelligence

Cultural exposure to facts and procedures Maintained with age, may compensate for declines in other areas; Similar to crystalized intelligence

Wisdom

Ability to use the accumulated practical knowledge for good judgment and decision making; Dependent on experience and personality, not just age

Neurocognitive disorders

Used to be called “dementia”

Major Neurocognitive Disorder

Significant decline in one or more cognitive areas; Interferes with independent functioning

Minor Neurocognitive Disorder

Modest decline in one or more cognitive areas; Does not interfere with independent functioning

Alzheimer’s disease

Most common type of neurocognitive disorder; 5th leading cause of death age 65+; Memory decline extends to personality changes, behavior problems, loss of self-care skills; Caused by genetic and environmental factors

Neurological causes of Alzheimer’s disease

Formation of beta-amyloid plaques; Block cell communication; May trigger inflammatory response causing neuronal death Malfunctioning of tau protein; Forms twisted strands called tangles that disrupt neuronal transport system; Nutrients and oxygen can’t get to neurons, and they die

Vascular neurocognitive disorder

Blockage of cerebral blood vessels; Generally affects one part of the brain, not all; Personality not affected; More abrupt onset, shorter course; Risk factors- Smoking Diabetes, Heart disease, hypertension, history of strokes

Lewy bodies

Microscopic protein deposits in neurons; Affect neurotransmitters (dopamine and serotonin); Impaired thinking, movement, behavior and mood

65

Average retirement age But 18.5% of adults over age 65 continue to work

Encore careers

Different field from the one in which they retired

Remote pre-retirement phase

Thinking about retirement

Immediate pre-retirement phase

Making concrete plans; Actual retirement

Honeymoon phase

Participate in activities

Disenchantment phase

Experience emotional let-down

Reorientation phase

Adjust to retirement; Simplify plans; Regular routine

Post-retirement activities

Staying active and socially engaged is important; Some retirees seek educational experiences; Additional training for encore career; Personal fulfillment; Educational travel programs

Ageism

Prejudice based on age

Triple jeopardy

Ageism, racism, and sexism faced by nonwhite elderly women

Integrity vs. despair

Retrospective accounting of life

Integrity

Finding meaning in one’s life and accepting one’s accomplishments; Acknowledging disappointments/failures; Feeling contentment and accepting others’ deficiencies; wisdom

Despair

can come from bitterness and resentment

Activity theory

Staying active leads to greater life satisfaction Better physical and mental health; Sense of purpose and social connections; True in general; But goals must be realistic

Convoy model of social relations

Social connections maintained by exchanges in social support; Close relationships (family, close friends) stable; Peripheral relationships (coworkers, neighbors) less stable

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Motivation for social contact changes with age; Optimizing positive affect rather than acquiring information; Prioritize time spent with emotionally close significant others; Smaller social networks

Loneliness

Discrepancy between the social contact a person has and the contacts a person wants; For women, often caused by social isolation; For men, often caused by emotional isolation; Associated with lack of self-worth, impatience, desperation, and depression

Solitude

Gaining self-awareness, taking care of the self, being comfortable alone, and pursuing one’s interests

Widowhood

Viewed as being significant life stressors; Adjustment depends on Extraversion and self-efficacy; Emotional support received from others Context of death (e.g., predictability)

Widowhood mortality effect

Higher risk of death after the death of a spouse

Online dating in late adulthood

Men seek physical attractiveness and offer status related information, want younger women; More interested in repartnering Women want older men until age 75; Older women don’t want to become caregivers or widowed again Also want to maintain personal and financial independence

Substance abuse in late life

Alcohol; Prescription opioids (painkillers) Benzodiazepines; May be overused instead of psychotherapy Marijuana; May increase as current Baby Boomers age

Successful aging

Relative avoidance of disease, disability, and risk factors; Maintenance of high physical and cognitive functioning; Active engagement in social and productive activities; Selective optimization with compensation; Elder makes adjustments to continue living as independently and actively as possible; Compensate by choosing other ways to achieve their goals; Example- Finding alternative transportation when can’t drive

Weeks before passing

Reduced appetite; Increased sleep, restlessness, disorientation, care needs

Days before passing

Decreased consciousness, blood pressure, urine volume; Pauses in breathing; Murmuring to people others cannot see; Reaching in air or picking at covers

Days to hours before passing

Comatose-like state; Inability to swallow; Extremities and skin become cold and discolored; Shallow breaths

Social death

Dehumanizing and withdrawing from someone who is terminally ill (Glaser & Strauss, 1966); Ignoring them, talking about them if they were not present, making decisions without consulting them first; Visiting less often, talking about superficial topics; May occur with friends/family or health care providers

How people understand death (Infants and young children Infants)

React to separation caused by death; May lose weight, sleep less, become sluggish and less interactive

How people understand death (Early and middle childhood)

Believe death is temporary or reversible (up to age 9)

How people understand death (Older children and adolescents Late childhood)

Understand death is permanent and universal; But may think that people die because they did something “bad”; May worry about their family dying

How people understand death (Adolescence)

Understand death as well as adults; May become preoccupied with death; Personal fable produces feelings of unique invulnerability; May engage in risky behaviors

How people understand death (Early and middle adulthood Early adulthood)

Low rates of death anxiety because death seems very remote

How people understand death (Middle adulthood)

Highest rates of death anxiety; Often caused by worries about responsibilities

How people understand death (Late adulthood Late adulthood)

Lowest rates of death anxiety; Fewest responsibilities; Have had more time to experience life; Have had more experience with death; More concerned with how they will die

Curative care

aims to promote complete recovery; May not be a realistic goal for all situations

Palliative care

focuses on providing comfort and relief from physical and emotional pain; Not just for terminally ill people; But may not focus on curing the patient