Organisation, Movements and Members

What is a typology?

Attempts made by sociologists to categorise different types of organisations. Based on factors such as organisation structures, state relationship, societal attitudes, size and type of members and their commitment.

What is a church?

Reaches national audiences with a very large membership. Have professional clergy with paid officials. Hierarchy and lasts for centuries, monopoly on the truth and are linked with the state.

What is a denomination?

Subset of a larger church, reaches a national audience with a large membership. Has a professional clergy but less bureaucratic. Can last over 100 years, strong commitment. No monopoly on the truth and often no link with the state.

What is a sect?

Local or national scope which tends to start small but can become extremely large. No professional clergy, often has a charismatic leader. Requires exceptional commitment and some may face state disapproval.

What is a cult?

Local, national or international scope which can vary in size. They are often short lived and die with the leader. Membership is often flexible and they claim no monopoly on the truth. No opposition to the state but may face disapproval.

What is Stark and Bainbridge's sectarian cycle?

Existing religion --> schism --> breakaway from own religion and set up a new one --> fervour --> die.

What are world rejecting NRM's?

- similar to sects

- clearly religious and are critical to the outside world.

- making a radical change to seek salvation, like living communally.

- conservative moral codes.

What are world accommodating NRM's?

- breakaways from existing mainstream churches/denominations

- focus on religious matters rather than worldly

What are world affirming NRM's?

- accept the world as it is, optimistic and promise followers success

- non exclusive and members of other religions

- most are cults

What do Stark and Bainbridge argue about sects and cults?

- sects result from schisms and promise other worldly benefits

- cults are new religions

What is an audience cult (Stark and Bainbridge)?

least organised, no formal membership, participation through the media.

What are client cults (Stark and Bainbridge)?

- based on a relationship between a consultant and a client

What is a cultic movement? (Stark and Bainbridge)?

- higher level of commitment, not tolerant of other religions.

What does Wallis argue about how the typologies see themselves?

- Churches and sects: claim that their interpretation of faith is the only legitimate one.

- Denominations and cults: do not claim monopoly on the truth

What does Wallis argue about how the typologies are seen by wider society?

- Churches and denominations: seen as respectable

- Sects and cults: seen as deviant.

What does Bruce argue about typologies?

These definitions do not fit todays reality, churches no longer have a monopoly on the truth.

What are Heavens Gate?

- Famous for mass suicide in 1997 (39 people)

- Cultic movement

- World Rejecting NRM

What is Methodism?

- Protestant Christian

- See everyone as being saved or forgiven, focus on charity and helping the poor

- Denomination but a dying faith

- World accommodating NRM

What is Transcendental Meditation?

- Form of silent meditation

- Developed in the 1960s from the Vedas

- Daily meditation, promotes a higher state of consciousness for a higher quality of life.

- World affirming NRM

- Cult

What is the evaluation of the concept of churches?

- Bruce: 'church' is only applicable to pre-industrial Britain, it has temporal validity.

- Almost half of the UK identifies as having no religious affiliation: Butter-Sloss (temporal validity)

- UK is pluralistic

What is the evaluation of the concept of denominations?

- Made complicated by globalisation (impact of culture on religion, in Utah Mormonism is a Church but in the rest of the USA it is a denomination)

- Secularisation is undermining the status of religion

- Differences between older and newer denominations shows that it is unreliable.

What is the evaluation of the concept of a sect?

- Very few sects share the same beliefs or theodicies

- Unfair of the media do dismiss sects as dangerous

- Christianity began as a sect that was labelled as deviant and dangerous (Barrett argues it is important to remember that many controversial religions started as sects)

What is the evaluation of the concept of a cult?

- Their beliefs may include a supernatural element, makes defining and measuring cults difficult

- Rarely a physical sacred place in which followers congregate as a community, makes establishing cults difficult

- Normally have a small number of client, and are very quick to come and go meaning they are hard to track.

Why do people join NRM's?

- Rejected by other religions

- Want to fill an identity gap (vacuum of meaning)

- Security and independence for those facing status frustration

- Offer other-worldly benefits and this-worldly benefits.

What does Barker argue the features of NRM's are?

- Concerned with spirituality

- Supporters tend to be young adults

- High turnover

- Charismatic leader

- Divide between them and us

- Certain they have the monopoly on the truth

- Face hostility from wider society

- Short lived because they require such high commitment.

Why are NRM's often shortlived?

- Audience and client cults: use services but don't commit and need diminishes over time

- Unwillingness to admit to membership

- Appeals to spiritual shoppers

- Restrictions by government

HOWEVER: not all NRM's are in decline, Christianity started as a NRM and is now a church.

What are some examples of New Age Movements?

- Crystal healing

- Aromatherapy

- Paganism

- Clairvoyance

What are NAM's?

- Eastern influenced metaphysical thought systems

- Conglomeration of theologies, hopes and expectations held together with an eclectic teaching of salvation.

- Moral relitavism

Why do people join NAM's?

- sense of security

- spiritual without religion

- more plausible

- more flexible, you can pick what works for you

- less commitment required

- more accessible and inclusive

What are the common themes of NAM's?

- the self is divine

- everything is connected

- self is the final authority

- self affirming in nature

What does Bruce argue about NAM's?

"an extension of the beauty parlour or gym"

What does Drain see NAM's as?

A symptom of the post-modern world, reflects a loss of faith in meta-narratives.

What do others see NAM's as?

- See them as late modern

- For example, Buddhism is being believed but is watered down.

- Consumerist ethos of society is reflected through spiritual shopping?

How does Bruce summarise changes in religion?

- "FROM CATHEDRALS TO CULTS"

1. one dominant church (15th century)

2. emergence of different types of protestant religion (16th and 17th century)

3. greater range of denominations and sects (18th and 19th century)

4. new age client cults grow in popularity (20th and 21st century)

What do Heelas and Woodhead mean by the 'Holistic Milieu'?

- All movements are separate but come under the same heading: look at your whole

What evidence from Kendal is cited to support the idea of spirituality replacing religion?

- During the 1990s the towns population grew by 11.4% but participation in spirituality grew by 300%.

How significant are NAM's?

- Difficult to asses as the group is wide and varied

- 2011 census: 2% identify as NAM's

- Shamans increased by 10x between 2011 and 2021 census.

What does Bruce argue about NAM's popularity?

They are superficially popular, followers lack spiritual conviction.

What does Heelas argue about NAM's?

NAM's are cross cultural unlike NRM's

What does the fact that 80% of NAM participants in Kendal are female suggest?

- More associated with nature

- Bruce: men wish to achieve, women wish to feel. W/C women are less likely to be involved (may be because they can't afford it)

Who do NAM's appeal to according to Woodhead?

A third space

How has disillusion with an established church or denomination caused NRM growth?

- Nelson: the emergence of Christian evangelical denominations have developed out of disillusionment with CofE.

- Growing popularity of Pentecostalism is evident of disillusion with Anglicanism

How has social change caused NRM growth?

- Social change brings about uncertainty and religious groups may provide community support.

- 1960/70s were fertile times for NRM growth, especially with the young middle class who were beginning to have more time freedom and knowledge.

- New millennium meant that some people believed that the world was on the edge of destruction, NRM's like Heavens Gate existed because of this.

- Postmodernists argue people are becoming disillusioned with metanarratives and NRM's can be completely personalised.

Why are NRM's growing according to Glock and Stark?

- Economic deprivation: they provide an explanation and justification, but also compensation.

- Weber calls this a theodicy of deprivilege.

What do Norris and Inglehart argue about NRM's?

- They provide existential security for those in life-threatening poverty.

How has change in social/status deprivation caused a growth in NRM's?

Glock and Stark suggest that NRMs attract members of the lower middle class experiencing status deprivation because they lack power at work and they can compensate their status in NRM's

How has organismic deprivation caused a growth in NRM's?

Those experiencing organismic deprivation may turn to NRM's in hopes of being healed, like scientology.

How has ethical deprivation caused a growth in NRM's?

They may feel the world is in moral decline and retreat to fundamentalist NRM's

How has psychic deprivation caused a growth in NRM's?

Some people reject the traditional value system and want to find themselves. Postmodernists call this a crisis of meaning.

Why have NAM's increased according to Heelas?

- There now exists a university educated, affluent and individualistic population that mainly works in expressive and caring professions.

- This causes them to have an interest in 'human potential'

- They have the economic resources to invest in NAM's

Why have NAM's increased according to Bruce?

- New age is an extreme version of individualism.

- NAM's promise self-improvement and inner spiritual perfection

Why has consumer culture increased NAM's?

- Heelas argues it has produced a climate of discontent, for women especially who fail to achieve what is socially acceptable and encouraged of them.

- They may suffer a crisis of meaning and turn to a NAM for guidance

Why have NAM's increased according to Drane?

- NAM's are a response to failures of both science and material success to solve the worlds problems.

- They turn away science in search of inner spiritual fulfilment.

- Bird: NRM's provide a needed spiritual component for an increasing rationalised world.

Why have NAM's been increasing because of rejection?

- Heelas argues NAM's are increasing because of a rejection of traditional religions and the authority of sacred texts.

- The New Age values personal experience.

- In the USA, where church going is at its lowest, New Age is at its strongest.