Unit 2: Cognition (AP Psychology)

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with the small details and then building up to a complete perception

top-down processing

a way our brain makes sense of information based on the larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations

selective attention

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

cocktail party effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli

inattentional blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

change blindness

the failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us

perceptual set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others

gestalt psychology

we perceive whole objects or figures rather than just a collection of parts

figure-ground

refers to the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings (ground)

binocular depth cues

visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

retinal disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face

convergence

when our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

monocular depth cues

visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye

relative clarity

a depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away

relative size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

texture gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

linear perspective

a depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

interposition

when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

perceptual constancies

our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina (like size, shape, or color) changes

shape constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes

size constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to grow or shrink

color constancy

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions

apparent movement

the perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement

encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time

retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

multi-store model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory

sensory memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most

iconic memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades

echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli

short-term memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity

long-term memory

the stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts

working memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short-term and long-term memories combine

phonological loop

component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information. It consists of two parts: Temporarily holds words and sounds for a few seconds, Rehearses and refreshes information in the phonological store through subvocal repetition

long-term potentiation

ong-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. Considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

chunking (grouping)

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory

automatic processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks

levels of processing model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered

shallow encoding

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning

deep encoding

thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

hierarchies

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling information by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

method of loci

mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

explicit memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

semantic memory

ype of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

autobiographical memory

type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point

implicit memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically

procedural memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

massed practice “cramming”

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks

spacing effect “distributed practice”

the phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle

primacy effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow

recency effect

phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle

retrieval cues

stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind. They play a critical role in the process of retrieving memories and can be External Cues: Environmental factors or objects that trigger memories. Internal Cues: Thoughts or feelings associated with the original learning.

recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieve information from memory spontaneously.)

recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented. It includes: Familiarity: Sensing that something has been encountered before. Identification: Matching new information with stored knowledge (e.g., recognizing the correct answer on a multiple-choice test).

context-dependent memory

when you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it.

state-dependent memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood

testing effect

phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing

metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory

the forgetting curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time

encoding failure

occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding

proactive interference

occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information; more likely to occur when the old and new information are similar

retroactive interference

occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information; Especially impactful when the old and new information are closely related

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it

source amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge

anterograde amnesia

memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact; Older memories, formed before the amnesia, are usually preserved

retrograde amnesia

memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia; Individuals can still learn new information and create new memories

infantile amnesia

the phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4

Alzheimer’s disease

progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

repression

distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness; Serves to protect the individual from psychological distress by keeping painful memories out of the conscious mind

constructive memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed

misinformation effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events

metacognition

thinking about one's own thinking processes

executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

convergent thinking

cognitive process that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

divergent thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that simplify decision-making by reducing the cognitive burden

insight

“Aha!” moment

hill climbing

Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward

subgoals or means end analysis

break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem

working backwards

Start with a solution/goal and figure out how to get there

trial and error

One solution after another is tested; time consuming

incubation

Put problem aside and engage in an unrelated task before coming back

expertise/ AI

Usually computer programs used to solve specific problems; however, sometimes this involves rigid sets that could hinder finding solutions

availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision

representativeness heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes or typical cases

prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts

schemas

Cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

assimilation

“Adding to Existing" The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas

accommodation

The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information