United Nations

when and where was UN founded

San Francisco, June 1945

membership

• charter originally signed by 50 countries (more in following years)

• defeated in war didn't join until:

  • 1955 — Italy

  • 1956 — Japan

  • 1973 — West and East Germany

aims

• prevent war

• international peace and security

• human rights

• problems solved through international law and co-operation

• better quality of life for all

General Assembly

• all member states, each has a vote

• annually, more if needed

• elect: non-permanent in SC, judges for ICJ, secretary general (based on SC recommendations)

• debates + recommendations on wide range of issues

• 2/3 majority needed to pass a recommendation on peace + security

SC

• security council

• 5 permanents (China, France, US, UK, Russia)

• 10 rotating, for 2 years (from all parts of the world)

• enforce sanctions…

• authorise use of force…

  … to maintain peace + security

• veto

• decisions need 2/3 majority, but all permanents

ECOSOC

Economic and Social Council

• 54 members for 3 years

• develop + implement policies (economical, social, environmental)

• co-ordinates, reviews, recommends based on other UN bodies

• supports development

Secretariat

• day to day work

• led by Secretary General

• employees and volunteers around the world

ICJ

International Court of Justice

• Hague

• 15 judges for 9 years

• settle disputes between nations according to international law

• if country agrees to its case going to ICJ, they must accept its decision

Trusteeship Council

• oversees process of decolonization

• its importance ⬇ (as less colonies)

Secretary General

• public face of UN

• every 5 years

• independent and above national politics

• limited powers

• in SC, GA, ECOSOC, head of Secretariat

• solves international disputes + brings threats to world peace to SC

LoN weaknesses VS UN remedy

• lack of commitment to peacekeeping —> peacekeeping forces (supplied by members national armies, wear blue helmet)

• unanimous decisions to pass any resolution —> majority + permanents needed in SC

• not all major powers are members —> all major are members of GA, but new emerging superpowers that are not part of permanent in SC

Palestine: background

• 1947-49

• Jewish in Biblical times —> expelled

• Arab, Muslim after

• post WW1, LoN: Palestine —> Britain

• 1920-30s, Holocaust + persecution of Jews —> immigration

• Britain unable to sustain colonies — expensive

• 1947 — ask UN to intervene

• 1948 — Britain left

Palestine 1: UN actions

• partition: 2 states + Jerusalem international city

• passed (no veto problem)

• Arabs don’t accept it — contradict “self-determination” principle

• violence ⬆

• 14 May 1948 — state of Israel

Palestine 2: UN actions

• 15 May 1948 — Lebanon + Syria + Jordan + Egypt attack Israel

• Resolution — ceasefire, supervised by UN mediator Bernadotte (Swedish), assisted by military observers UNTSO (UN Truce Supervision Org)

—> 1st peacekeeping mission

Palestine 2: aftermath

• no truce

• Bernadotte murdered

• Israel pushed back Arab forces +

• lost control of Gaza, West Bank, east Jerusalem

• 750 000 Palestinian Arabs —> refugees

Palestine 2.2: UN actions

—> no truce

• Dec 1948 — resolution 194:

  1. refugees allowed to return home

  2. refugees not wanting to go home, compensated for lost property

  3. Jerusalem demilitarised + protected access to all holy places

• UN Conciliation Commission — to resolve the disputes, unable to do so

Palestine: aftermath

• Arabs lost

• 1949 — Israel member of UN

• 1 mil Arab refugees

• 1949 — UNRWA (UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian refugees), work in 1950

• UN peacekeeping force established

Korea: background

• 1950-53

• after WW1 Japan surrendered —> left Korea

• North of 38 parallel to USSR

• South of 38 parallel to USA

• 1947 UN announce elections for new government

• USSR don’t cooperate —> Kim Il Sung

• south voted for Syngman Rhee (American ally)

• June 1950 — North invades South

Korea 1: UN actions

• resolutions — North to withdraw

• forces to help South against communist North

(all possible because USSR boycotted UN, as they refused to recognise communist government of China)

Korea 2: UN actions

• US led UN forces push back communists into North (US hope for new agreements + single government)

• Aug 1950 — USSR take presidency at SC

• Nov — UN close to China

• Oct — Chinese enter war, support North

• USSR veto anything anti -communism, -china, -ussr + UN intervention

• UN used GA, where majority support —> Resolution 377(V) or ‘Uniting for Peace’ (GA met in an emergency session, as 7 in SC were in support)

Korea: aftermath

• back at 38th parallel

• July 1953 — Armistice

• 1st time forces deployed

• UN — US tool for foreign policy?

• 2 mil died

Congo: background

• 1960-64

• 1960 — Congo suddenly independent from Belgium

• president — Kasavubu (K)

• prime minister — Lumumba (L)

• army attack government + white people —> flee —> Belgium sent troops —> ⬆ violence

• Tschombe (T) takes over Katanga (resource rich South) —> declared independence

• K + L aske UN to intervene

Congo: UN actions

• UNOC (UN Operation in Congo) go to Congo, replace Belgian troops — successful everywhere, but Katanga

  Sep 1960 — K and L dismiss each other

  Jan 1961 — L murdered by T

  Congo split into 3

• UNOC launch offensive — Operation Rumpunch — successful but bloody

• 1962 — all mercenaries left Katanga + T did too

Congo: aftermath

• 1963 — Congo reunited

• 1964 — UN withdraw BUT K appoints T as a Prime Minister

• more years of rebellion and conflict

• 1st time involved in internal conflict

Six Day War: background

• 5-10 June 1967

• since 1949 — ongoing tensions

• since 1956:

  • Egypt + USSR

  • Israel + USA

  • —> SC divided

  • Nov — UNEF I (UN Emergency Force) began peacekeeping duties (which it failed)

• 1964 — PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization, in Jordan): to end Israel sovereignty in Palestine + end the state; supported by all Arab states; border raids on Israel

• April 1967 — build up of Arab forces (Lebanon, Jordan, Syria) along Israel border

• May 1967 — Nasser (E leader) closed the Straits of Tiran (before demanded UNEF I to withdraw peacekeepers, not UN) —> ⬇ trade and oil to Israel

• 5 June 1967 — Israel launched air attack on E (400+ E,J,S + Iraq aircraft destroyed)

Six Day War: UN actions

• 6 June 1967 — ceasefire 1 — Israel refused

• 7 June 1967 — ceasefire 2 — Israel refused; defeats Jordan; took West Bank and Arab Jerusalem

• 8 June 1967 — Israel defeated Egypt; moved to Sinai desert + Suez Canal; Egypt accepted ceasefire 2

• 9 June 1967 — ceasefire 3 — Israel refused; Syria accepted

• 10 June 1967 — Israel defeated Syria; takes Golden Heights: controls whole Jerusalem; strengthened the borders; ceasefire 4 — Israel accepts

• 22 Nov 1967 — Resolution 242: for finding lasting peace

  • Israeli forces to withdraw

  • all to accept boundaries + independence

  • Janning — UN’s special envoy to the Middle East

  • refugee problem solution

  BUT

  • Israel only negotiated implementation with Arab staes directly

Six Day War: aftermath

• Israel didn’t allow UNEF I to redeploy on its territory

• Palestinians rejected Reso 242 (couldn’t return to old land + no homeland)

• UNRWA opened 10 camps for fleeing Palestinians

• Aug 1967 — E+S+J: no peace, recognition, negotiations with Israel

• Nasser: only accepted Reso 242 if Israel withdrew troops (they didn’t) —> little impact

• PLO continues to attack (war in 1973)

Yom Kippur War: background

• 1973

• 1973 — E + S + J plan to launch an attack

• launched on Yom Kippur (most important religious holiday in Israel):

  • businesses closed

  • streets empty

  • synagogues full

  • soldiers at home

  —> surprise

• from west by E, crossed Suez Canal

• from north by S, out of Golden Heights

• Israel recovered quickly:

  • within week — push S out of the Golden Heights + attack it

  • within 3 weeks — defeat E

Yom Kippur War: UN actions

• UN unable to prevent — countries involved wouldn’t listen:

  • Israel had to faith in UN — thought sympathetic to Palestinian cause —> to US

  • E + Arab states —> USSR

• Resolution 338 — call for end hostilities

  • E agreed

  • Israeli ignore + advance

• Resolution 340 — demands ceasefire

  • USSR threatens to send troops, help E

  • Arab states stopped selling oil to USA —> pressure on USA —> pressure on Israel —> worked

  • USA sent secretary Henry Kissinger

  • Israel agreed to stop fighting

  • UNEF II — oversee disagreements + supervise a buffer zone

  • UN Disengagement Observation Force — supervise Israel and S

• 1974 — by Kissinger “disengagement agreements” btn I and E, I and S

  • forces to sperate

  • POWs exchanged

  • I withdraw from recently take land

• during 6 year of UNEF II — no war btn I and Arab

Lebanon 1: background

• 1975-85

• civil war —> not everyone wants UN

• Muslim and Christian militia groups + PLO (Palestine liberation organization), who attacked Israel from Lebanon

• 1975 — bus of Palestinians attacked by Christian militia

• 1976 — Syrian army invade; Arab Deterrent Force invade; (to stop PLO from taking over —> war)

• 1978 — Israel invades (to stop PLO) —> alliance with Christian militia —> SLA (South Lebanese Army)

  —> Lebanon protest to UN

Lebanon: UN actions

• Resolution 425 — Israel to withdraw + Lebanon’s independence to be respected

• Resolution 426 — establishes UNIFIL (UN Interim Force in Lebanon), which:

  • confirm withdrawal

  • restore international peace and security

  • help Lebanese government to restore its authority

• UNIFIL —> Israeli forces withdrew

BUT

• areas to SLA, not UNIFIL

• SLA attack on UNIFIL —> 8 UN killed

• more attacks from PLO and SLA

Lebanon: aftermath

• UNIFIL nor SLA unable to control Lebanon

• PLO attacks Israel

• Israel: “UN sympathetic to PLO”

Lebanon 2: background

• UNIFIL — limited power in providing humanitarian + protection

• violence ⬆

• PLO attacks Israel

• Israel bombed Beirut + S forces

• 1982 — Israel invaded, broke Reso 425, reached Beirut

• Lebanon turned to multinational force led by US

Lebanon 2: UN failure

• 1984 — everything worsened —> US withdrew

• 1985 — Israel withdraws (war unpopular; costly; moderate government)

Namibia 1: background

• 1980s

• SA occupied Namibia (South West Africa), LoN —> wants independence post WW2

• 1960s — SWAPO (SWA people’s organization) to campaign for independence; recognised by UN (for SA — terrorists)

• in SA — apartheid — ignores UN Declaration of Human Rights (didn’t sign it)

Namibia 1: UN actions

• SWAPO started armed conflict, after SA refused to withdraw (by UN)

• GA want sanctions — US + UK veto (SA ally for West)

Namibia 2: background

• civil war in Angola (proxy in cold war)

• Angola — SWAPO base for guerrilla warfare

• PLAN (People’s Liberation Army of Namibia, military force of SWAPO) — carry out guerrilla activities

• SA attack Angola

• apartheid in Namibia, bu SADF (SA Defence Force)

Namibia 2: UN actions

• 1980s — SG Javier Perez de Cuellar negotiating in Africa

• SA agree to ceasefire from 1989 (April 1)

  • SA co-operates with UN about elections and independence of Namibia

  • Cuba withdraws from Angola

  • Angola agrees to UN monitor Cuba’s withdrawal

• why?

  • end of Cold war

  • SG

  • SA harms international economy + apartheid

  • SA reforms + new leader

  • SA forces strained

• UNTAG (UN Transition Assistance Group) — oversee Namibia’s independence

  • disarming SADF and SWAPO

  • monitoring SADF withdrawal from N

  • demobilising Namibian armed units

• UNHCR involved — help refugees

• UNCIVPOL (UN civil police) — create democratic state (first time employed on large scale)

  • train new N police force —? law impartially enforced

  • people can express views

  • free and fair elections

• 1990 — Namibia independent

BUT

• fighting again — not enough UN troops

effect of Cold War end

• use of veto declined

• 48 peacekeeping missions — 1989-2011 VS 18 in 1946-1989

Gulf War 1: background

• 1991

• Aug 2 1990 — Iraq invades Kuwait

• Saddam Hussein — Iraqi leader

Gulf War 1: UN actions

• (hours after invasion) Resolution 660 — Iraq’s withdrawal

• more resos: embargo on purchase of Iraqi oil; sale of arms.. didn’t withdraw

• Resolution 678 — member states (E and S too) allowed to attack Iraq, if Iraq doesn’t withdraw (by Jan 1991)

• —> didn’t —> Operation Desert Storm

• UN relied on others’ troops, funds, resources — US led force

• Operation:

  • Jan 1991 — 1st air attack

  • 24 Feb — ground operations

  • 28 Feb — Iraq accepted reso

  • quick and successful

in between Gulf Wars (1991-2003)

• 1991 — UNIKOM (UN Iraq-Kuwait Observer Missions) — monitor and protect demilitarised zones along border, force if necessary

• 1990s — weapon inspections in Iraq —> weapons and technology + WMDs (weapons of mass destruction) —> harsh economic sanctions

• government didn’t suffer, people did: 500 000 Iraqi children died

• split in SC: France + Russian want end of sanctions, US + UK don’t —> no solution, but agreed on humanitarian food and medicine

• 11/9/2001 — terrorist attack in New York by Al-Qaeda

Gulf War 2: not UN actions

• Bush — needs to be terrorism —> use of force, even if UN won’t support

• USA + Britain: “invasion is not about regime changed”, though Saddam did not respect human rights

• France, Russia and Germany — veto invasion

• 20 Mar 2003 — USA, UK an others invade anyway

• UN couldn’t prevent it, only declared it was illegal

• Apr 2003 — Saddam overthrown

• May 2003 — Resolution 1483 — accept USA and UK as occupying powers + UNAMI (UN Assistance Mission to Iraq), still there