Sociology Midterm: Foundations, Theories, Deviance, and Social Stratification

Sociology

The systematic and scientific study of human society and social behavior from large-scale institutions and mass culture down to small groups and individual interactions.

Psychology

Tends to specialize in the internal states of mind of an individual (thoughts, emotions, cognition).

The Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the connection between personal troubles and larger public issues, understanding how an individual's life is shaped by the historical and social context.

Culture Shock

A sense of disorientation that occurs when entering a radically new social or cultural environment.

Macrosociology

An approach that examines large-scale social structures, institutions, and social forces to see how they affect the lives and behaviors of individuals and groups.

Microsociology

An approach that focuses on face-to-face, small-group interactions to understand how they create and sustain the larger patterns and institutions of society.

Paradigm

A set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that makes up a way of understanding social reality.

Auguste Comte

Sought to bring the scientific method to the discipline of sociology, a concept known as positivism.

Positivism

The belief that society could be studied empirically, just like the natural sciences.

Harriet Martineau

Traveled to the United States in the 1830s to conduct a sociological study of this new nation.

Émile Durkheim

Known for the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness or a loss of connection to the social world.

Anomie

A state of normlessness or a loss of connection to the social world that can result from rapidly changing conditions of modern life.

Historical Context of Comte

The chaos of the French Revolution and the subsequent instability heavily influenced Comte.

Critique of the U.S. by Martineau

She was disappointed by the contradiction between the nation's proclaimed principles of freedom and equality and its actual practices, specifically its condoning of slavery and the denial of full citizenship rights to women and Black people.

Impact of COVID-19 on Anomie

During the COVID-19 lockdowns, a person feeling disconnected from society due to fewer social interactions was experiencing anomie.

Sacred

The holy, divine, and special aspects of the world as classified by religions.

Profane

The ordinary, mundane, and everyday aspects of the world as classified by religions.

Class Consciousness

The recognition by members of the working class (proletariat) of their shared oppression under capitalism and their true class interests.

False Consciousness

The adoption of the dominant ideology of the ruling class by the less powerful, causing them to accept the very system that oppresses them.

Praxis

The idea that intellectuals should not just theorize about the social world but must actively work to improve it and enact social change.

Bureaucracy

Formal organizations based on legality, written rules, and hierarchical authority, characteristic of modern industrialized societies.

Iron Cage

The entrapment in a system based on efficiency and rational calculation, as discussed by Weber.

Structural Functionalism

A perspective that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

Manifest Functions

The recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern.

Latent Functions

The unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern.

Conflict Theory

A perspective that views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change, focusing on competition for scarce resources.

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro-level theory that focuses on how our behaviors depend on the ways we interpret, make sense of, and define ourselves, others, and social situations.

Creation of Meaning

The concept that meaning is not inherent in things but is negotiated and created through social interaction with others.

Modernism

A perspective that trusts in the power of science and technology to solve problems and improve life.

Postmodernism

A perspective that is critical of 'grand narratives' and questions the certainty and objectivity of modernism.

Critical Race Theory

A framework that examines the way race and racism have shaped legal systems and social structures.

Institutional Racism

A systemic issue that perpetuates white privilege and marginalizes people of color.

Application of Structural Functionalism

A functionalist would argue that income inequality is beneficial for society because it motivates people to take on difficult and important jobs.

Application to Deviance

Conflict theory argues that rules and punishments are unequally distributed, with those at the top facing more lenient rules.

Chicago School of Sociology

The origin of the symbolic interactionism perspective.

Deviance

A behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction from a particular group.

Functionalist Perspective on Deviance

From this viewpoint, deviance is not entirely negative. It serves the social function of clarifying moral boundaries and affirming social norms.

Social Control Theory

Proposed by Travis Hirschi, this theory suggests that strong social bonds make individuals less likely to commit crimes. The stronger a person's attachments, commitments, and involvements in society, the more they have to lose by being deviant.

Application of Social Control Theory

A study finding that students in tight-knit learning communities are less likely to cheat or engage in underage drinking is best explained by social control theory, as their bonds to the community discourage deviance.

Structural Strain Theory

Developed by Robert Merton, this theory explains deviance as a result of a 'strain' or tension between socially approved goals (like financial success) and the socially approved means of achieving them.

Labeling Theory

A symbolic interactionist perspective on deviance.

Primary vs. Secondary Deviance

A deviant label transitions from primary to secondary deviance when the individual internalizes the label and begins to act accordingly.

Example of Primary and Secondary Deviance

A student gets in one fight (primary deviance). He then gains a reputation as a troublemaker, begins to see himself that way, and gets into more fights (secondary deviance).

Social Stratification

The division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy based on access to wealth, power, and prestige. It is a characteristic of the entire society, not just a reflection of individual differences.

Caste System

A highly rigid system of stratification in which social status is determined by birth and is lifelong. There is virtually no chance for social mobility.

Class System

A system of stratification based on social groups and individual achievement. It allows for more social mobility than a caste system.

Upper Class

Makes up about 1% of the U.S. population, yet its total net worth is greater than that of the bottom 90% combined.

Middle Class

Homeownership has traditionally been a key marker of this class, but this trend was significantly impacted during the Great Recession (2007-2009).

The 'New Jim Crow'

A term used by Michelle Alexander to describe how the U.S. criminal justice system functions as a contemporary caste system.

The American Dream

This ideology legitimizes the U.S. system of inequality by reinforcing the idea that everyone has the same chance to get ahead, regardless of their starting point.

Redlining

The discriminatory practice of refusing mortgages and other financial services for houses in poor and minority neighborhoods.

The Digital Divide

The inequality in access to and use of information and communication technologies.

Political Disenfranchisement

The removal of the right to vote.

Group

Individuals who share a sense of identity and have ongoing social relations.

Crowd

A temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact.

Category

People who share one or more attributes but who lack a sense of common identity or belonging.