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classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Pavlov
founder of classical conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
Shaping
An operant conditioning in which something is learned gradually
observational learning
learning by observing others
insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
learned helplessness
An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
Concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototypes
A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category
Heuristic
an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a "rule of thumb"
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
type 1 thinking
Thinking that isfast and easy
type 2 thinking
Thinking that is Slow and under your control
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)
convergent thinking
using logic and algorithms to solve problems, there is only one answer, doesn't see things from various perspectives
nativist theory
the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity and by Noam chomsky
Formalist Theory
We learn language through hearing others speak it
Behavioral Theory
Use of reinforcement methods to change learners' behaviors
social pragmatic theory
Language development stems from a desire to interact socially
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Nine defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
Spearman's general intelligence
General intelligence: if skilled in one area, skilled in others as well. Idea that skills cluster
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
practical intelligence
the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful
intellectual disability
(formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.
Giftedness
An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above.
normal distribution
A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.
Validity
The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
Reliability
Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
testing bias
a test that shows provable and systematic differences in the results of people based on group membership
Motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake one of two types of motivation
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment one of two types of motivation
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
arousal theory
theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation
Malsow's hierarchy of needs
Model which shows certain needs must be met before others
emotion
the feeling that is produced in response to life experiences
emotional regulation
the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
display rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
6 universal facial expressions
anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
A theory made up of sensorimotor period, preoperational period, concrete operations, and formal operations expressed by Jean Piaget
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accommodation
Making sense of new information, revising existing schemas, or creating new schemas
sensorimotor stage
Stage 1 in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
preoperational stage
Stage 2 in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
concrete operational stage
Stage 3 in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
formal operational stage
Stage 4 in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
secure attachment
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return
insecure-resistant attachment
classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent's return
disorganized attachment
a type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
authoritative parenting
parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children
neglectful parenting
a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
preconventional, conventional, postconventional
Preconventional
Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking
conventional
Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which moral choices are made according to law or public opinion
postconventional
Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason
Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development
Trust v. Mistrust, Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt, Initiative v. Guilt, Industry v. Inferiority, Identity v. Role confusion, Intimacy v. isolation, Generativity v. Stagnation, Integrity v. Despair
Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.
Worldview
A person's view of the world, consisting of the set of beliefs on which he bases his life.
dynamic sizing
the ability to simultaneously know the norm for a group and recognize that the norm might not apply to every member of that group
Multiculturalism
A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions
Acculturation
The adoption of cultural traits, such as language, by one group under the influence of another.
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Marginalization
Groups lacking desirable traits are excluded from society. These groups include poor, uneducated, undesirable color and language. These groups will stay on the margin of acceptance by society unless there is social intervention.
Integration
the act of uniting or bringing together, especially people of different races
acculturative stress
stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture
Individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
cultural intelligence
the ability to understand and respond appropriately to different cultural contexts and situations
cultural competence
the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures
Microaggressions
common, everyday verbal or behavioral indignities and slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, and negative messages about someone's race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion
Sex (biological)
biological characteristics that distinguish females and males, consisting of primary and secondary sex characteristics
Cisgender
individuals whose gender identity matches his or her biological sex
Transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
heterosexual
attracted to the opposite sex
homosexual
attracted to the same sex
Bisexual
attracted to both sexes
LGBTQ
individuals whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered, or who are currently questioning their sexual orientation