Human Anatomy and Physiology - Chapter 1 Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering introductory concepts in Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1, including structural organization, life functions, homeostasis, anatomical directions, planes, and body cavities.

Anatomy

Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another.

Physiology

Study of the function of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.

Subdivisions of anatomy

• Gross or macroscopic anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy

• Developmental anatomy

Gross or Macroscopic Anatomy

The study of large, visible structures.

Microscopic Anatomy

Deals with structures too small to be seen by the naked eye.

• includes cytology & histology

Cytology

Microscopic study of cells.

Histology

Microscopic study of tissues.

Developmental Anatomy

Studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life.

Embryology

Study of developments before birth.

To study anatomy, one must know…

anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and auscultate

Subdivisions of physiology

• based on organ systems (ex: renal or cardiovascular physiology)

• Often focuses on cellular & molecular levels of the body

  • looks at how the body’s abilities depend on chemical reactions in individual cells

To study physiology…

• understand basic physical principles (currents, pressure, & movement), basic chemical principles

Anatomy & physiology are…

• Inseperable!!

Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function

The principle that function always reflects structure, and what a structure can do depends on its specific form.

Example of the Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function

Teeth!

• Front teeth- sharp edges of incisors (structure) → ideal for cutting (function)

• Molars- flat surfaces (structure) → ideal for grinding (function)

Order of Structural Organization

Atoms → Molecules (Chemical level) → Organelle → Cellular level → Tissue level → Organ level → Organ system level → Organismal level

Atoms

tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules (waters & proteins)

Molecules

Waters, proteins, etc. associate in different ways to form organelles

Organelle

Basic components of cells

Cellular level

• Cells are formed from molecules and vary in structure, to preform different functions in the body, some have similar functions

• smallest units of living things

Tissue level

• groups of similar cells that have

  a common function

• 4 basic types: epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and

  nervous tissue

Organ level

• discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (four is more common) that performs a specific function for the body

• complex functions become possible

• life-sustaining function for each, no other can preform

Organ System Level

• Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose

• For example, the cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels which the blood vessels are constantly flowing blood to the heart, providing oxygen and nutrients to the body.

Organismal Level

• Many organ systems make up the organism, the highest level of organization.

• Represents how all levels are constantly working together to sustain life.

Maintenance of life involves

• Maintaining boundaries

• Movement

• Responsiveness

• Digestion

• Metabolism

• Excretion

• Reproduction

• Growth

Maintaining boundaries

• Separation between internal and external environments must exist

  • Plasma membranes separate cells

  • Skin separates organism from environment

Movement

• Muscular system allows movement

  • Of body parts via skeletal muscles

  • Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination)

  • Contractility

Contractility

Refers to movement at the cellular level.

Responsiveness (when it hurts you’re going to check it!)

• Ability to sense and respond to stimuli

  • Withdrawal reflex prevents injury

  • Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities

Digestion

• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood

Metabolism

• all chemical reactions that occur in body cells

• breaking down substances, synthesizing complex ones, using nutrients & oxygen to produce ATP for cell activity

Excretion

• Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

• Sweat from sweat glands

• Urination

• Exhalation

Reproduction

• Cellular level, involves division of cells for growth or repair

• Organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring

Growth

• Increase in size of a body part or of organism

Interrelationships among systems

Integumentary System

Skeletal System

Muscular System

Nervous System

Endocrine System

Cardiovascular system

Lymphatic System/Immunity

Respiratory System

Digestive System

Urinary System

Male Reproductive System

• Male sex hormone and sperm are produced from testes.

• Glands and ducts help deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract.

Female Reproductive System

• Eggs and female sex hormones are produced by ovaries.

• The other structures are responsible for fertilization and fetus development.

• Milk is produced from the mammary glands in the breast to provide nourishment to the newborn.

Survival Needs

Too much or too little can be harmful

• Nutrients

• Oxygen

• Water

• Normal body temperature

• Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Nutrients

Chemicals for energy and cell building

Oxygen

Essential for release of energy from foods

• The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen

Water

Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactions

• Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions

Normal body temperature

If body temp falls below or goes above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs

Homeostasis

• Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the environment (dynamic state & has contributions from all organ systems)

• Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis (Nervous & Endocrine~major role

• Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector

Receptor

Sensor in homeostatic control that monitors the environment, sends input

Control Center

• determines the set point at which a variable is maintained

• receives input from the receptor

• determines the appropriate response.

Effector

• receives output from the control center and provides the means to respond to the stimulus

• response either reduces stimuli (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

  

Negative Feedback

• Control mechanisms are usually negative feedback

• Original effect of stimulus is shut off or reduced in intensity by output, causing the variable to change in the opposite direction of the initial change.

• OPPOSITE DIRECTION

Positive Feedback

• SAME DIRECTION as original stimulus

• Mechanism where the response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

• Exhibits a cascade effect: each reaction feeding into the next

• Usually controlling infrequent events that don’t need constant adjustment (like contractions which are enhanced by oxytocin or platelet plug formation and blood clotting)

Homeostatic Imbalance

• Disturbance of homeostasis

  • Increases risk of disease

  • Aging

    • control systems become less efficient, internal environment less stable

    • produce aging changes

• If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over

  • Heart failure

Standard Anatomical Position

Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from the body.

Directional terms

• describe one body structure in relation to another body structure

  • Direction is always based on standard anatomical position

  • Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer

Superior (cranial)

• Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body

• Above

• Ex: The head is superior to the abdomen

Inferior (caudal)

• Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body

• Below

• Ex: The naval is inferior to the chin

Anterior (ventral)

• Toward or at the front of the body

• in front of

• Ex: The breastbone is anterior to the spine

Posterior (dorsal)

• Toward or at the back of the body

• Behind

• ex: the heart is posterior to the breastbone

Medial

• Toward or at the midline of the body

• On the inner side of

• Ex: the heart is medial to the arm

Lateral

• Away from the midline of the body

• On the outer side of

• The arms are lateral to the chest

Intermediate

• Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

• The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

Proximal

• Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

• The elbow is proximal to the wrist

Distal

• Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

• The knee is distal to the thigh

Superficial (external)

• Toward or at the body surface

• The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles

Deep (internal)

• Away from the body surface, more internal

• The lungs are deep to the skin

Axial

Major division of the body consisting of the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular

Major division of the body consisting of the limbs (legs and arms).

Regional terms

designate specific areas within body divisions

Body planes

Surfaces along which body or structures may be cut for anatomical study

Sagittal Plane

Plane that divides the body vertically into right and left parts.

Midsagittal Plane

A sagittal cut made perfectly on the midline.

Parasagittal Plane

A sagittal cut that is off-centered and not on the midline.

Frontal (coronal) Plane

Plane that divides the body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back); also called coronal plane.

Transverse Plane

Plane that divides the body horizontally at $90^\text{degrees}$ to vertical plane into superior and inferior parts.

Oblique Section

Result of cuts made at an angle other than $90^\text{degrees}$ to the vertical plane.

Dorsal Body Cavity

Body cavity that protects the fragile nervous system and contains the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.

Ventral Body Cavity

Body cavity that houses the internal organs (viscera) and contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Viscera

Collective term for internal organs housed within the ventral body cavity.

Synovial Cavities

Joint cavities that are not exposed to the environment.