Anatomy Lecture Exam 1 Material

The first level of structural organization

Chemical level

The second level of structural organization

Cellular level

The third level of structural organization

Tissue level

The fourth level of structural organization

Organ level

The fifth level of structural organization

Organ system

The sixth level of structural organization

Organism

What does the chemical level of an organism entail?

Atoms that form molecules

What does the cellular level of an organism entail?

Cells and their organelles

What does the tissue level of an organism entail?

Cells grouped to achieve a common goal

What are the four primary tissue types?

Epithelial, connective, nervous, muscle

What does the organ level of an organism entail?

A discrete structure with more than one type of tissue

What does the organ system level of an organism entail?

Organs working together for a common goal

What does the organism level of an organism entail?

Result of all levels working together

Process by which cells become specialized to perform specific functions

Differentiation

These are undifferentiated cells

Stem cells

Embryonic stem cells that can become any adult cell

Pluripotent stem cells

These stem cells can become any cell including placenta

Totipotent stem cells

These stem cells are partially specialized, found in many adult tissues

Tissue specific stem cells

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

Superior (cranial)

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below

Inferior (caudal)

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of

Anterior (ventral)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind

Posterior (dorsal)

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of

Medial

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of

Lateral

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

Intermediate

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Proximal

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Distal

Toward or at the body surface

Superficial (external)

Away from the body surface, more internal

Deep (internal)

What is this direction?

Superior

What is this direction?

Inferior

What is this direction?

Anterior

What is this direction the patient is facing (right, ignoring midline)?

Posterior

What is this direction?

Medial

What is this direction?

Lateral

What is this direction?

Proximal

What is this direction?

Distal

What is this plane?

Coronal plane

What is this plane?

Madian plane

What is this plane?

Transverse plane

These two cavities are in the dorsal body cavity.

Cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity

This is a ventral body cavity.

Thoracic cavity

The thoracic cavity is composed of:

Two lateral parts and the mediastinum

The two lateral parts of the thoracic cavity contain:

A lung surrounded by a pleural cavity

The heart surrounded by the pericardial sac

Mediastinum

This cavity is divided into two parts.

Abdominopelvic cavity

This cavity contains the liver, stomach, intestines, kidneys, and other organs.

Abdominal cavity

This cavity contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum.

Pelvic cavity

What is this cavity?

Dorsal cavity

What is this cavity?

Cranial cavity

What is this cavity?

Vertebral cavity

What is this cavity?

Thoracic cavity

What is this cavity?

Abdominopelvic cavity

What is this cavity?

Abdominal cavity

What is this cavity?

Pelvic cavity

These cavities are serous cavities.

Ventral cavities

Serous cavities are lined by these:

Serous membranes

The serous membrane does this for the body:

Secretes fluid and reduces friction

This is a single layer of flattened cells

Mesothelium

Membrane covering the inside of each ventral cavity

Parietal serosa

The membrane covering visceral organs is called:

Visceral serosa

What is this membrane?

Visceral pericardium

What is this cavity?

Pericardial cavity with serous fluid

What is this membrane?

Parietal pericardium

What is this membrane (blue)?

Parietal pleura

What is this membrane (green)?

Visceral pleura

Used to examine small structures through a microscope.

Microscopy

Illuminates tissue with a beam of light

Light microscopy

Uses beams of electrons

Electron microscopy

Looks at surface topography

Scanning EM

Looks at structures within cells

Transmission EM

Deflects electrons in the beam to different extents

Heavy metal salt stain

Minor distortions of preserved tissues

Artifacts

Electromagnetic waves of very short length that is best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense structures.

X-rays

Takes successive X rays around a person's full circumference

Computed (axial) tomography

Forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body

Positron Emission Tomography

Produces high-quality images of soft tissues

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body's tissues

Sonography (ultrasound imaging)

Three major components of a cell

Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus

Forms the boundary of each cell

Plasma membrane

This component is made of cytosol + organelles.

Cytoplasm

Composed of phospholipid bilayer interspersed with proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol.

Plasma membrane

Types of membrane proteins

Integral proteins and peripheral proteins

Movement of larger molecules

Endocytosis, exocytosis

Mechanism by which molecules or particles not able to pass (either directly or via transporters) through membranes enter cells.

Endocytosis

“Cell eating”- large particles - non-specific

Phagocytosis

“Cell drinking”- smaller particles - non-specific

Pinocytosis

Substance binds to receptor molecules on membrane; Invaginates and forms a coated pit; Pinches off to become a coated vesicle; specific molecules

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Mechanism that moves substances out of the cell

Exocytosis

Lies internal to plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

Jelly-like fluid in which other cellular elements are suspended; Consists of water, ions, enzymes (control chemical reactions), and non-enzyme proteins

Cytosol

2 categories of organelles

Membrane bound and non-membrane bound

“Network within the cytoplasm”- flattened envelopes; membrane bound

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Ribosomes stud the external surfaces; synthesis of proteins to be secreted out of cell; continuous with nuclear envelope

Rough ER

Consists of tubules in a branching network; No ribosomes are attached; therefore, no protein synthesis; Lipid (fat) synthesis, detoxifying enzymes, calcium storage; membrane bound

Smooth ER

A stack of three to ten disk-shaped envelopes; receives transport vesicles from ER; Post-translational processing of proteins; Sorts products of rough ER and sends them to proper destination; membrane-bound organelle

Golgi apparatus

Two membranes (inner/outer) and matrix (inner membrane) folded into cristae; generates metabolic energy = ATP; Enzymes of Citric acid cycle (Kreb’s cycle) in matrix; Electron transport chain on cristae of inner membrane (enzymes involved with ATP production); membrane bound

Mitochondria

Membrane-walled sacs containing acid hydrolases (enzymes); Digest unwanted substances (both intracellular substances plus substances brought into cells)

Lysosomes

Membrane-walled sacs of oxidase enzymes (peroxidases)

Peroxisomes

Constructed of proteins and ribosomal RNA; Site of protein synthesis; non-membrane organelle

Ribosomes