Research Methodology - IB Psych SL

Psychology

the systematic study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

actions that can be externally observed

Mental Processes

complex internal cognition (conscious or unconscious) a form of “covert” behavior

Systematic Study

Systematic research is methodical, it follows specific guidelines or patterns. (scientific method)

Empirical Evidence

evidence that has been gathered using the scientific method, including the use of observation and/or experimentation.

Quantitative Methods

• Experiments

• Correlational Studies

  • Twin Studies

• Some observations

Qualitative Methods

• Case Studies

• Interviews

• Surveys/Questionnaires

• Some observations

Qualities of Experiments

• Variables

  • Independent variable

  • Dependent variable

• Standardized procedure

• Thoughtful sampling

Operationalize

To provide a clear explanation of how variables are interpreted

• To operationalize an IV, explain how the researcher will change the variable to create different conditions

• To operationalize a DV, explain how that variable will be measured by the researcher (this should be numerical if possible)

Laboratory experiments

conducted under highly- controlled conditions

Field Experiments

conducted in a natural environment, allowing for less control over variables

True Experiment

IV is manipulated and DV is measured under controlled settings; sample is randomly allocated to conditions

Natural Experiments

 No IV is manipulated. The IV is naturally occurring and then the effects (DV) are measured.

Quasi Experiments

The IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but instead determined based on the participants’ characteristics

High Control to Low Control Experiments

1. Laboratory

2. True

3. Field

4. Quasi

5. Natural

Independent Variable

 The element that is manipulated (changed) by the researcher

Dependent Variable

The element that is measured by the researcher (can be quantitative or qualitative)

Confounding Variable

An element that is not being tested, but that can affect the DV if not controlled by the researcher

Control

Making specific choices in an attempt to prevent extraneous variables from affecting the DV.

Participant

An individual who takes part in the experiment (or a different type of research study)

Hypothesis

should predict the impact the IV will have on the DV, while also clarifying how you will manipulate the IV.

Null Hypothesis

should state that there is no significant relationship between the IV and the DV.

Independent Measure (Design measure)

Used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment with separate groups of people

Strength : Limits demand characteristics, same materials can be used across conditions

Limitation : Requires a larger sample size, more intensive, there will be participant variability between groups.

Repeated Measures (Design measure)

Used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment within the same group of participants.

Strength : Participants are tested against themselves, fewer participants needed.

Limitation : demand characteristics more likely, possibility for confounding variables, can’t use the same materials.

Matched Pairs (Design measure)

Used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment on different groups of participants, but they ensure that the key characteristics of the participants in each group are the same.

Strength : participants are less varied across conditions

Limitation : Difficult to do accurately

Sample

A group of people whom a researcher tests for a particular study. Psychologists take samples from a broader population, which is hopefully representative of society at large.

Target Population

The group that a researcher is attempting to represent in the study.

Self-Selected Sampling

Occurs when participants volunteer to be a part of the study

Strength : easy to find participants

Limitation : often makes it difficult to generalize data.

Opportunity Sampling

Occurs when the researcher uses a group of people who happen to be available.

Strength : ease of finding participants

Limitation : often lacks participant variability

Random Sampling

Occurs when the researcher gathers a group of applicable candidates, but then randomly chooses participants from that group.

Strength : higher likelihood of generalizability

Limitation : depends largely on sample size and can be inconsistent

Purposive Sampling

looking for people with a very specific set of traits, often accomplished by a self-selected sample.

Strength : enables generalization with the target population

Limitation : hard to obtain, low participant variability.

Snowball Sampling

Another type of purposive sampling, is used when you’re looking for participants from a specific group which would not respond to an ad in a paper.

Strength : same as purposive sampling

Limitation : same, also potential lack of trust within participants

Stratified Sampling

attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population.

Strengths : mirrors target population

Limitation : time intensive

Correlational Studies

• Looks at the relationship between 2 qualities or elements

• Data generally comes from experiments, observations, and meta-analysis.

Strengths : identifies a relationship between 2 factors, works well with genetic research, twin studies.

Limitation : correlation does not equal causation

Perfect Positive Correlation

= 1.0

As instances of one element increase, so do instances of the other.

Perfect Negative Correlation

= -1.0

As instances of one element increase, instances of the other element decrease.

Observational Studies

Participant vs Non-participant

Covert vs. Overt

Naturalistic vs. Controlled

Strengths : natural environment, technology makes observations much easier to conduct and data more objective, also allows gain of consent ahead of time

Limitations : often no consent, (sometimes afterward), vague procedures can lead to inaccurate results, alteration of behavior if participants notice they are being observed.

Case Studies

The close observation of a specific person (or in rare instances a group of people, such as a family) who has experiences a psychologically significant event.

Strengths : allows for the study of phenomenon that would otherwise be impossible to test.

Limitations : Generally highly invasive, confidentiality, only one person - can’t generalize to larger population easily, can’t replicate.

Interviews

A researcher sits down with a participant (or a group of participants), and asks them questions about the topic being researched. Varies by type of questioning, structured, semi-structured, unstructured. May be recorded (film or audio) to review at a later time. Often used to supplement another research method. Follow up to an experiment or observation, part of a case study, can be used after cognitive testing to determine a participant’s feelings regarding the experience or about their performance.

Strengths : allows researchers to gain insight on behavior that may not otherwise be able to be studied.

Limitation : Potential dishonesty from the participants, Demand characteristics, confidentiality.

Focus Groups

A particular type of interview in which a group of participants with a specific quality in common are questioned.

Questionnaire (Survey)

Function in many of the same ways and situation as interviews, but allow for larger samples.

Strengths : some participants may be more honest on paper than out loud, it makes it easy for researchers to gather large quantities of data.

Limitation : some participants don’t surveys seriously.

Reliability

The likelihood that the study could be replicated (done again) by other researchers, and the same result could be achieved.

Validity

the idea that the results of the study are trustworthy, unbiased, and can be applied to the target population.

Extraneous/Confounding Variable

a variable that influences the results of an experiment.

Internal Validity

The trustworthiness of a study based on the procedural steps put in place by the researcher. A study with confounding variables lack internal validity. May be affected by the construct validity of a study - that is, investigating if the measure really is measuring the theoretical construct it is supposed to be. Has to do with operationalization of the variables. Several problematic constructs in psychology - intelligence, communication, love, and aggression.

External Validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. If the sample is not representative of the population it is drawn from then the results are not generalizable to that population and lacks external validity knows as population validity. Often in Lab experiments the situation is too highly controlled it doesn’t reflect real life, or so artificial that is doesn’t represent what happens in real life - lacks ecological validity.

Demand Characteristics

Created when the participant believes they know the goal of a study and (often subconsciously) change their responses as a result. This creates participant bias, and is more common in repeated measures designed experiments, observations, and interviews.

Expectancy Effect

when a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks.

Orne (1962)

• 224 numbers

• 32 pieces

• 2000 sheets

“Screw you” effect

Occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher’s hypothesis, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.

Social desirability effect

is when participants react in a certain way because they feel that this is the “socially acceptable” thing to do, and they know that they are being observed.

Controlling for Demand Characteristics

1. Use and independent samples design

2. During the debriefing, be sure to ask the participants if they know what was being tested.

3. Deception is often used in experiments in order to avoid how demand characteristics; however, this may lead to ethical problems if the deception leads to undue stress or harm of the participant.

Order effects

Changes in participants’ responses that result from the order (first, second, third) in which the experimental conditions are presented to them. More common in repeated measures designed-experiments.

Fatigue Effect

occurs when participants are asked to take part in several conditions of the same experiment, they may get tired or bored. In either case, they may lose motivation to try their best or their concentration may be impaired, influencing the results.

Interference effects

Exist when the fact that someone has taken part in one condition affects their ability to take part in the next condition.

Practice effects

When participants are asked to do a task repeatedly, we may see that they improve as a result of practice effects.

Controlling for Order Effects

1. One control is called counter-balancing. This is when you vary the order in which the conditions are tested.

2. There needs to be a long enough pause between conditions

3. Often researchers use a filler task in order to control for interference effects.

Researcher Bias

When the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.

Confirmation Bias

When a researcher searches for or interprets information in a way that confirms a pre-existing belief or hypothesis.

Funding Bias

the tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of the study’s financial sponsor.

Publication Bias

A problem in psychology that often only studies with results are published.

Controlling for Researcher Bias

1. Researchers should decide on a hypothesis before carrying out their research

2. To control for confirmation bias, researchers can use researcher triangulation to improve inter-rater reliability

3. A double-blind control is the standard control for researcher bias.

Protection from undue stress or harm

No harm may be done to participants

• Physical or psychological

• nothing that will have a permanent effect on their well-being

Undue Stress or harm

• “undue” stress is a higher level of stress than an individual may experience on a day to day basis.

Informed Consent

• Participants must be told about the nature of the study and agree to participate

• They must also be told what rights they have, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time

• The participant must understand what the research is about and any potential issues that may arise

• Parents/Guardians may give consent for individuals who are too young or are unable to consent on their own.

Limited Deception

Deception should generally not be used; however, slight deception, which does not cause any stress to the participant, may be used in some cases. Before deception is used, the psychologist proposing the study must justify why it is necessary and an ethics board should approve the study. Deception must be removed in the debriefing of the study.

Debriefing

At the end of the study, all participants must be debriefed. The true aims and purpose of the research must be revealed to the participants. Any deception must be explained. All participants should leave the study in the same physical and psychological state in which they arrived.

Right to Withdraw

A participant has the right to withdraw at any time, before a study begins, in the middle, a month after is has concluded. They should feel no pressure or coercion from the psychologist to remain and their data must be withdrawn from the study.

Confidentiality

Participants should be guaranteed that all information that is obtained in the study will be anonymized.