unit one: perspectives in psychology

American psychological association(APA)

Professional organization representing psychologists in the united states

Behaviorism

Focus on observing and controlling behavior

John B. Watson

Biopsychology

Study of now biology influences behavior

Biopsychosocial model

Perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

Clinical psychology

Clinical of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

Cognitive psychology

Study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

Counseling psychology

Area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

Developmental psychology

Scientific study of development across a lifespan

Dissertation

Long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidates doctoral training

Empirical method

Method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or pervious authorities

Forensic psychology

Area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the Justice system

Functionalism

Focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

William James

Humanism

Perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Abraham Maslow

Introspection

Process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

Wilhelm Wundt

Ology

Suffix that denotes "scientific study”

Personality psychology

Study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individuals unique

Personality trait

Consistent pattern of thought and behavior

"Big five “

PhD

(Doctoral of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

Postdoctoral training program

Allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

Psychoanalytic theory

Focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

Sigmund Freud

Psychology

Scientific study of the mind and behavior

PsyD

Doctoral of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research -oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

Sport and exercise psychology

Area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotions factors and physical performances in sports, exercise, and other activities

Structionalism

Understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Wilhelm Wundt

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes that the whole of perception is different from the sum of its parts

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, he developed theories about the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior.

John B. Watson

Founder of behaviorism, he emphasized observable behavior over introspection.

William James

American philosopher and psychologist, he is best known for his work in pragmatism and functionalism, emphasizing the purpose of consciousness and behavior.

Abraham Maslow

Psychologist known for creating the hierarchy of needs, emphasizing human motivation and self-actualization.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of structuralism, he is known for establishing psychology as a distinct scientific discipline and for using experimental methods to study the mind.

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

Founders of Gestalt psychology, they emphasized understanding the mind and behavior as wholes rather than parts, focusing on perception and problem-solving.

Archival research

Method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

Attrition

Reduction in number of research participants as some hop out of the study over time

Cause -and - effect relationship

Changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research resign

Clinical or case study

Observational research study focusing on one or a few people

Confirmation bias

Tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

Confounding variables

Unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in The other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor cause changes in both variables

Contra group

Serves as a basis for comparison and contras for chance factors that might influence the results of the study-by holding such constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

Correlation

Relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

Correlation coefficient

Number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

Cross - sectional research

Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

Debriefing

When an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

Deception

Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

Deductive reasoning

Results are predicted based on a general premise

Dependent variable

Variable that the researcher measures to see now much effect the independent variable had

Double-blind study

Experiment in which both the researchers and the participants me blind to group assignments

Empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

Experimental group

Group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather then chance

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

fact

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

hypothesis(plural: hypotheses)

a testable prediction about how the world will behave if an idea is correct, often worded as an if-then statement

illusory correlation

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

informed consent

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

inter-rater reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

opinion

personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

participants

subjects of psychological research

peer-reviewed journal article

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

placebo effect

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

population

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability

sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

Margaret Floy Washburn

American psychologist who was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. She is known for her work in animal behavior and for authoring "The Animal Mind."

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association(APA). She is known for her work in memory and self-psychology.

Francis Sumner

First African American to earn a PhD in psychology, known for his work in educational psychology and the psychology of race.

Inez Beverly Prosser

First African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology; her work influenced the Brown v. Board of Education case.

Gunamudian David Boaz & N.N. Sen Gupta

Pioneered psychology in India, focusing on social, experimental, and philosophical aspects, establishing departments and research centers.