Final Study Guide ,Civilizations and Key Historical Developments

First Cataract of the Nile River

The primary natural boundary between Egypt and Nubia (Kush), located near modern Aswan in southern Egypt.

Cataracts of the Nile

Rocky, shallow rapids that made river travel difficult and served as natural defense barriers.

Kerma

The earliest major Nubian kingdom (c. 2500-1500 BCE), located near the Third Cataract, known for being a wealthy trading center.

Meroe

A later phase of the Kingdom of Kush (c. 800 BCE-350 CE), located near the Sixth Cataract, known for being a major iron-producing center.

Beringia

A land bridge that connected Siberia and Alaska during the last Ice Age, allowing migration of ancestors of Native Americans.

Paleolithic Period

The Old Stone Age during which the ancestors of Native Americans migrated and used stone tools.

Clovis points

Flint spear tips used for hunting large animals by early Native Americans.

Mayan civilization

A civilization that arose in Mesoamerica, particularly in the Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador.

Preclassic Period

The period of the Mayan civilization from c. 2000 BCE to 250 CE.

Classic Period

The peak of Mayan civilization from 250 to 900 CE, characterized by flourishing city-states like Tikal and Palenque.

Postclassic Period

The period from 900 to the 1500s CE during which southern Mayan cities declined and northern cities like Chichen Itza rose.

Astronomy in Maya

The study of celestial movements with precision, including predicting eclipses and developing multiple calendars.

Mathematics in Maya

The development of a vigesimal (base-20) number system.

Iron tools in pre-Columbian societies

Metalworking developed much later, with metals used mostly for decorative or ceremonial purposes, not for tools or weapons.

Cultural and political identities of Nubians

Developed independently due to physical barriers like cataracts and deserts that limited Egyptian military penetration.

Royal tombs in Kerma

Elaborate structures that showcased the wealth and power of the Kerma kingdom.

Nubian pyramids

Distinct architectural style developed in Meroe, part of the Kingdom of Kush.

Migration of Native Americans

The process through which ancestors migrated from northeastern Asia to North and South America over thousands of years.

Stone tools

Tools used by early Native Americans during their migration, including scrapers, knives, and hammers made from stone and bone.

Indigenous American civilizations

Civilizations that formed in North and South America, including the Inca, Maya, and Aztec, stemming from the migration of ancestors.

Concept of Zero

Invented centuries before Europe, which allowed for complex calculations.

Founder of Islam

Prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632 CE) is the founder of Islam.

Region of Islam's Development

Islam began in Mecca, located in the Arabian Peninsula (modern-day Saudi Arabia).

Revelations to Muhammad

Muhammad received revelations from God (Allah) through the Angel Gabriel, which became the foundation of Islamic belief.

Spread of Islam

Islam quickly spread across the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, becoming a major world religion.

Holy Text of Islam

The Qur'an is the holy text of Islam.

Importance of the Qur'an

It is believed to be the literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad in Arabic, containing guidance on theology, law, morality, and daily life.

Cultural Unification by the Qur'an

It unified the Islamic world culturally and religiously, and its use of Arabic helped spread the language across the Middle East and North Africa.

Mongols

The Mongols were a nomadic people from the Central Asian steppes.

Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan (born Temujin, c. 1162-1227 CE) united the Mongol tribes and founded the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history.

Genghis Khan's Military Strategy

His military strategy, use of psychological warfare, and emphasis on loyalty and discipline made the Mongols highly effective conquerors.

Legacy Contributions of Genghis Khan

Four major contributions include Religious Tolerance, Promotion of Trade, Communication System, and Merit-Based Leadership.

Religious Tolerance

Allowed freedom of religion in the empire, encouraging cultural diversity.

Promotion of Trade

Reopened and protected trade routes like the Silk Road, boosting global commerce.

Communication System

Created the Yam, a relay station system similar to a postal service.

Merit-Based Leadership

Promoted people based on skill and loyalty, not noble birth, increasing efficiency and loyalty in his empire.

Protestant Reformation

Beginning in 1517 with Martin Luther, it broke the religious unity of Europe.

Impact of the Protestant Reformation

Led to the formation of Protestant churches and ended the Catholic Church's monopoly on Christianity in Western Europe.

Key Contributions of the Enlightenment

Three key contributions include Reason over Tradition, Natural Rights, and Separation of Powers.

Reason over Tradition

Enlightenment thinkers promoted logic, evidence, and scientific inquiry over superstition and traditional authority.

Natural Rights

John Locke proposed that all humans have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, which governments must protect.

Separation of Powers

Montesquieu's idea to divide government into branches influenced modern democratic constitutions.

Feudalism

The system that included landowners and dependent farmers called peasants.

Role of Landowners in Feudalism

Landowners (lords or nobles) owned large estates and allowed peasants (serfs) to work the land in exchange for protection.

Serfs in Feudalism

Serfs were often bound to the land and had limited freedom or rights.

Equal rights and representation

Demands for equal rights and representation, especially by the Third Estate—commoners.

End to feudal privileges

Demands for an end to feudal privileges of the nobility and clergy.

Constitution limiting king's power

Demands for a constitution that limits the king's power.

Enlightenment ideals

Encouraged people to demand liberty and democracy.

Financial crisis causes

The financial crisis was caused by debt and poor harvests, making reform urgent.

Simón Bolívar

Leader of the revolution in Gran Colombia.

José de San Martín

Leader of the revolution in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

Miguel Hidalgo

Leader of the revolution in Mexico.

Latin American revolutions

Mostly wars of independence from European colonial powers (Spain and Portugal).

European revolutions

Often sought to change domestic governments, limit monarchy, or expand democracy.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Emperor of the First French Empire who crowned himself in 1804.

Napoleonic Code

Legal reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte.

Downfall of Napoleon

Came after the failed invasion of Russia and defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Archduke Ferdinand

His murder started WWI by creating tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.

Great Stock Market Crash

Occurred in 1929, known as Black Tuesday (October 29), caused by speculative stock buying, bank failures, unequal wealth distribution, and lack of financial regulations.

WWI Alliances

Allies: Britain, France, Russia, later USA; Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire.

WWII Alliances

Allies: USA, UK, USSR, China; Axis: Germany, Italy, Japan.

US entry into WWI

Caused by German U-boat attacks, especially sinking of the Lusitania, and the Zimmermann Telegram.

US entry into WWII

Caused by the surprise attack by Japan on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

Germany surrender in WWII

Surrendered in May 1945 after Hitler's suicide and Allied advances into Berlin.

Japan surrender in WWII

Surrendered in August 1945 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima (Aug 6) and Nagasaki (Aug 9).

Partition of the Middle East

Largely between colonial powers (like Britain and France) and emerging Arab nationalist or Islamic states.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

Divided Ottoman lands without regard for ethnic or religious boundaries.

Economic interests in the Middle East

Oil, trade routes, and access to the Suez Canal were of interest to Europe and the United States.

Key traits of Capitalism

Emphasizes private ownership of property and businesses, profit motive, free competition, and minimal government interference.

Free markets

Allow for voluntary exchange of goods, services, and labor based on supply and demand.

Key traits of socialism

Emphasizes public or collective ownership of major industries or services, redistribution of wealth to reduce inequality, and social welfare programs.

Karl Marx

Credited as the founder of modern socialism and communism, especially through The Communist Manifesto (1848).

Nationalism

The belief that a people with a shared language, culture, and history should have their own independent nation.

Focus of nationalism

Focuses on national unity and independence, often used to inspire independence movements or military expansion.