Chapter 13 Exploring Psychology

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Personality

________ psychologists explain why different people may act differently in a given situation.

Social

________ psychologists study how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

overestimate;underestimate

We ________ the influence of personality and ________ the influence of situations.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request; can be used for the bad (innocent people delivering shocks to other innocent people); can be used for the good (charity and donations: permission to put up a small sign then a bigger sign)

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

more

The less coerced and more responsible we feel for a troubling act, the _______ dissonance we feel.

more

The more dissonance we feel, the _______ motivated we are to find consistency, such as changing attitudes to help justify the act.

dispositional attribution

a person's stable enduring traits

situational attribution

a social situation

dispositional attribution; situational attibution

We can attribute the behavior to the person's __________, or we can attribute to a __________.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

1) preservation of innovation 2) culture enables an efficient division of labor

How we are distinguished from other "social" animals

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

chameleon effect

natural mimics, unconsciously imitating others' expressions, postures, and voice tones

empathize

to feel what others are feeling

mood linkeage

sharing up and down moods with others

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

1) are made to feel incompetent or insecure 2) are in a group with at least three people 3) are in a group in which everyone else agrees 4) admire the group's status and attractiveness 5) have not made a prior commitment to any response 6) know that others in the group will observe our behavior 7) are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards

We are most likely to conform when we

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Stanley Milgram

experimented with obedience; "teacher" delivers shock to "learner"; proved how much a "learner" is obedient to a higher authority ("teacher")

1) the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure 2) the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution 3) the victim was depersonalized at a distance, even in another room 4) there were no role models for defiance

According to Milgram, obedience was highest when

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

1) feel less accountable and worry less what others think 2) view their individual contributions as dispensible 3) share equal benefits; unless highly motivated and strongly identified with the group, some may slack off

Causes of social loafing

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

social control

the power of the situation

personal control

the power of the individual

minority influence

The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities is ________ ________.

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. ______ generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

1) stereotypes 2) emotions 3) discrimination

Prejudice is a mixture of

attitude;behavior

Prejudice is a negative _______; discrimination is a negative ________.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

subtle;automatic;unconscious

Prejudice can be _______, _______, and _______.

just-world phenomenon (blame the victim dynamic)

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity

outgroup

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

1) forming categories 2) Remembering vivid cases 3) Believing the world is just

The cognitive roots for prejudice

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

Vivid

______ (violent) cases are more readily available to our memory and feed our stereotypes.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

1) genetic 2) biochemical 3) neural

Biology influences aggression at three levels

Y chromosome and monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene

Two markers that signify aggression

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)

helps break down neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin ("warrior gene")

low

People who have ____ MAOA gene expression tend to behave aggressively when provoked.

Testosterone and alcohol

Two biochemical factors that influence aggressiveness

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression

reinforced;watching

We learn when our behavior is ______, and we learn by ______ others.

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

rape myth

idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get "swept away" while being "taken"

proximity

geographic eagerness

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

1) proximity 2) physical attractiveness 3) similarity

When a person is attracted to another, they are influenced by

reward theory of attraction

we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, and we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

1) emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive label 2) arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal

Two factor theory of emotions

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

1) Equity 2) Self-disclosure 3) positive support

Key factors in attaining and having an enduring companionate love

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

notice; interpret; assume responsibility

We will help only if the situation enables us first to _______ the incident, then to _______ it as an emergency, and finally to _______ ________ for helping.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

1) contact 2) communication 3) conciliation 4) cooperation

How to promote peace

Philip Zimbardo

randomly assigned volunteers to play one of the two roles, prisoner or a guard; proved that role playing can become real

True.

(T/F) Despite increased verbal support for interracial marriage, many people admit that in socially intimate settings (dating, dancing, marrying) they would feel uncomfortable with someone of another race.

1) men are more transparent 2) people's choices are more superficial 3) men look forward to contact

In speed dating...