A&P SCI OLY MASTER LIST

What function do meninges serve?

They are protective membranes that swaddle the brain and spinal cord.

What are ventricles filled with?

Cerebrospinal fluid

What are some functions of cerebrospinal fluid?

Washes out impurities from the brain, transfers nutrients, provides cushioning for the brain and spinal cord. 

What is an advantage of the blood-brain barrier?

Protects against infections and blood-borne toxins. 

What is a limitation of the blood brain barrier?

Makes it hard to deliver blood medication to the brain.

What are the hemispheres of the cerebrum?

The right and left hemisphere

What is meant by hemispheric specialization?

Different roles of the right and left for specific tasks and behaviors.

What is the outer covering of the cerebrum including the cerebral hemisphere?

The cerebral cortex

What is the seat of complex cognition?

The cerebral cortex

What is the difference between grey and white matter in terms of structure and function?

Grey matter: dominated by cell bodies and dendrites, mostly receiving and processing information

White matter: contains mostly myelinated axons, mostly transmits information

What is the purpose of the corpus callosum?

Helps the left and right hemisphere communicate

What are the lobes of the central hemispheres and how are those lobes formed?

Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital. They form from folds in the cerebral cortex.

What is the lateral and central sulcus? What structures/functions are associated with each lobe?

Lateral sulcus: divides temporal lobe

Central sulcus: divides frontal and parietal lobe

What is aphasia?

A brain disorder involving trouble speaking or understanding other people, from damage to language portions of the brain. Mostly left side of the brain.

What are characteristics associated with Broca’s aphasia?

Frontal lobe, understand speech, short phrases with great effort.

What are characteristics associated with Wernicke’s aphasia?

Temporal lobe, long and complete sentences, good cadence, not making sense.

What are some components of the different brain divisions: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and brainstem? What are their functions? Where are they located?

Forebrain: cerebrum including cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, and thalamus.

Midbrain: periaquedactal grey, VTA and substantia nigra.

Hindbrain: cerebellum, pons, and medulla

Brainstem: midbrain, pons, and medulla

Dendrite

Receive stimulus and carries it impulses toward the cell body.

Cell Body with nucleus

Fiber which carries impulses away from cell body

schwann cell

cells which produce myelain or fat layer in the PNS

Myelin Sheath

Lipid layer around the axon; which insulates the axon

Node Ranvier

Gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath

impulse

-self propagating

-mechanism, potassium and sodium pump

synapse

-junction between neurons

-the neurons do not actually tough at the synapse

-neurotransmitters used to restart impulse in dendrite of 2nd neuron

neurotransmitters

-chemicals in the junction which allow impulses to be started in the second neuron

brain

know these terms:

-brain stem

-diencephalon

-cerebellem

-cerebrum

spine

know these terms:

-spinal cord

lobes of the cerebrum

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

special regions (of the brain)

broca's area, wernicke's area, limbic system

brain waves patterns - beta

-concentration, arousal, alertness, cognition

-higher levels associated with anxiety, diease, feelings of sparation, fight or flight

brain waves patterns - alpha

-relaxation, superlearning, relaxed focus, light trance, increased serontonin production

-pre-sleep, pre-walking drowsiness, mediation, beginning of access to unconscious mind

brain waves patterns - theta

-dreaming sleep (REM sleep)

-increased production pf catecholamines, increased creativity

-integrative, emotional experiences, potential change in behavior, increased retention of learned material

-hypnagogic imagery, trance, deep mediation, access to unconscious mind

delta

-dreamless sleep

-human growth hormone released

-deep, trance-like, non-physical state, loss of body awareness

-access to unconscious and "collective unconscious" mind, greatest "push" to brain when induced with Holosync

cranial nerves

-12 pair

-attached to undersurface of brain

spinal nerves

-31 pair

-attached to spinal cord

autonomic nervous system

-regulates bodies involuntary responses

-two divisions:

--sympathetic (emergency response, fight or flight)

--parasympathetic (normal everyday conditions)

major sense organs

-visions (eye)

-hearing (ear)

-taste (taste receptors)

-smell (olfactory system)

-skin (hot, cold, pressure, pain)

taste buds

-top of nasal cavity

-extremely sensitive

-easily fatigued

-much of "taste" involves smell

chemical receptors

chemical receptors:

-sweet

-sour

-bitter

-salty

-MSG

senses in skin

-heat

-cold

-light pressure

-heavy pressure

-pain

disorders of the nervous systems

-epilepsy

-seizures

-alzheimer's disease

-multiple sclerosis

-parkinson's disease

-shingles (herpes zoster)

-cerebral palsy

-glaucoma

-pink eye (conjunctivities)

effects of drugs

-alcohol

-caffeine

-nicotine

-marijuana

basic processes of the digestive system

-ingenstion (intake of food)

-digestion (breakdown of food):

--mechanical - physical breakdown

--chemical - chemical breakdown of macromolecules to monomers

-absorption (transport of the products of digestion into the blood

-defecation - elimination of undigested waste

organs of digestive tract

-mouth

-pharynx

-esphagus

-stomach

-small intestine

-large intestine

-anus

mouth

where food is mechanically broken down (by teeth) and chemically broken down (amylase in saliva)

pharynx

swallowing occurs here

esphagus

a simple tube between the mouth and stomach; peristalsis aides in swallowing the bolus of food from the mouth

stomach

storage of food, digestions of protein

small intestine

majority of digestions and absorption of food; most chemical enzymatic digestion occur

large intestine

absorption of water, waste storage

anus

expels undigested waste; muscles to control exit and prevent leakage.

Accessory Organs

Secrete Fluids into digestive tract

-Salivary Glands

-Liver

-Gall Bladder

-Pancreas

Salivary Glands

Secrete salivary amylase

Liver

Produces bile salts, critical for digestion and absorption of fats

Gallbadder

Storage of bile

Pancreas

Secretes pancreatic amylase and other digestive enzymes to the small intestine, critical for digestion of carbohydrates, protein, and fats

Esophagus

A simple tube between the mouth and stomach - peristalsis aides in swallowing

Ingestion

intake of food

Digestion

breakdown of food bit by bit, small enough to be absorbed

Mechanical Digestion

Physical breakdown of food

Chemical Digestion

Chemical breakdown of macromolecules to monomers

Macromolecules

Carbohydrates, Protein, Nucleic Acid, Lipids

Monomers

Building blocks of complex molecules, called polymers

Ex. of Monomers

MONOSACCARHIDES (SIMPLE SUGARS) for carbohydarates

AMINO ACIDS for protein

NUCLEOTIDES for nucleic acids

FATTY ACIDS for lipiids

Disorders of the digestive system

-Stomach and duodenal ulcers

-Cancers of the digestive system

-Diarrhea

-Lactose Intolerance

-Hepatitis

-Crohn's Disease

-GERD

-Diverticular Disease

-Celiac Disease

Insoluble fiber

-a type of fiber which cannot be dissolved in water

-insoluble fiber draws water to the intestine, increasing the bulk and softness of waste products

Soluble fiber

can be digested slowly and it slows the digestive process and keeps the stomach fuller longer leaving the body feeling full for a longer period of time

GFR

amount of filtrate formed per minute in all nephrons of both kidneys

Kidney

Filters blood and forms urine

Ureter

Carries urine to bladder; Muscles contract and relax to move urine out of kidneys every 10 to 15 seconds to prevent infection

Urethra

Releases urine from the body by relaxing the sphincter muscle (circular muscle around the bladder opening to keep it from leaking) at bottom of bladder and contracting the bladder muscles

Bladder

Stores urine; it can hold up to 16 oz of urine for 2-5 hours

Filtration

Pressure forces, water, and dissolved substances from the glomerular blood into the Bowmen's capusle at the amount of 125 ml per min.

Reabsorbtion

The return of substances from the filtrate into the blood and interstitial fluid; water by omosis; Na Cl, glucose, and amino acids by active transport

Secretion

The active release of substances into the tubular lining cell into the nephron tubule; it gets rid of toxis and residue; electrolyte balance by mostly releasing K+; acid base blance by releasing H+ and NH+

GFR

= UV = (Urine concentration x Rate of Urine Flow)/ (Blood Plasma Concentration) = (g/ml x ml/min)/ g = ml/min

Disease of the Excretory System

-Obstructive Disorders

-Urinary tract infections (UTI)

-Glomerular Disorders

-Renal Failure (Acute or Chronic)

-Treatment for Renal Failure

-Incontinence, Prostatitis, BPH (national)

Sensory Neurons

bring messages to the CNS

Motor Neurons

carry messages from the CNS

Internurons

between the sensory and motor neurons in the CNS

Stimulus

is a change in the environment with sufficient strength to initiate a response

Excitablility

the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse

Impulse

a flow of electrical signals or charges which move in only one direction along a nerve cell

Potential

the neurons charge difference from the extracellular fluid surrounding them

Na+-K+ pump

the mechanism for nerve impulse movement

Gates

thousands of tiny molecules in the cell membrane of the neuron that allow sodium or potassium ions to pass through

Action Potential

when the nerve impulse uses sodium and potassium ions to change potential forming an impulse by depolarization and repolarization

Depolorized

when the opening of the sodium gates allows sodium ions to move into the neuron causing the inside to become more positive than the outside

Refractory Period

A short period after the nerve impulse is there, and the neuron cannot transmit an impulse while it returns to normal

Axon Terminals

swellings at the synapse that are used by the axon to signal the dendrite of the next neuron

Receptor

reacts to a stilmulus

Afferent pathway (sensory neuron

conducts impulses to the CNS

Interneuron

consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)

Efferent pathway (motor neuron)

conducts impulses from CNS to effector

Effector

muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by contracting or secreting a product

Spinal Reflexes

are initiated and completed at the spinal cord level; it occurs without the involvement of higher brain centers

Brain Stem

parts are the medulla, pons, midbrain; has involuntary responses and relays information from spine to upper brain

Diencephalon

thalamus and hypothalamus are parts of....

Meninges

the three coverings around the brain and spine; they help cushion, protect, and nourish the brain and spinal cord

Dura mater

the most outer layer of the meninges; very tough