Visual Perception and Social Influence in Psychology

Reception

Detecting light via photoreceptors (rods and cones) in the retina.

Transduction

Conversion of light energy into electrochemical energy by photoreceptors.

Transmission

Sending neural impulses via the optic nerve to the brain.

Selection

Detecting specific features of visual stimuli using feature detector cells.

Organisation

Grouping and arranging visual information into meaningful patterns.

Interpretation

Assigning meaning to visual information using memory, past experience, etc.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Divided Attention

Splitting attention between multiple tasks/stimuli.

Sustained Attention

Maintaining focus over time.

Figure-Ground

Differentiating a figure (object) from its background.

Closure

Mentally filling in gaps in an incomplete image.

Similarity

Grouping similar-looking elements together.

Proximity

Grouping objects that are close together.

Convergence

Eyes turning inward to focus on close objects.

Retinal Disparity

Slight difference in images from each eye used to judge depth.

Accommodation

Eye muscles adjust the lens to focus on objects at varying distances.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Interposition

Closer objects block distant ones.

Texture Gradient

Detail becomes less distinct as surface recedes.

Relative Size

Larger images are perceived as closer.

Relative Size

A large ball appears closer than a smaller one.

Height in Visual Field

Objects closer to the horizon appear farther away.

Context

The setting/environment helps determine perception.

Motivation

Desire or need influences perception.

Emotional State

Emotions affect what we perceive.

Past Experience

Prior experiences influence how we interpret current stimuli.

Memory

Previous mental images help with recognition and understanding.

Culture

Cultural background influences how we interpret stimuli.

Reception

Light is detected by photoreceptors in the retina.

Transduction

Light energy converted into neural signals.

Transmission

Neural signals sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

Selection

Brain filters visual info using feature detectors.

Organisation

Grouping elements into a whole using Gestalt principles.

Interpretation

Assigning meaning to visual information.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus, ignoring others.

Divided Attention

Splitting attention between tasks.

Figure-Ground

Differentiating object from background.

Closure

Filling in visual gaps to perceive a whole.

Similarity

Grouping elements that are alike.

Proximity

Grouping elements that are close together.

Convergence

Eyes turn inward for close objects.

Retinal Disparity

Slight differences in images for depth perception.

Accommodation

Lens shape changes to focus on distance.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge in distance.

Interposition

One object blocking another = closer.

Texture Gradient

Texture lessens with distance.

Relative Size

Larger = closer (if same actual size).

Height in Visual Field

Higher objects seen as farther away.

Context

Surroundings affect interpretation.

Motivation

Internal drive affects perception.

Emotional State

Emotions influence interpretation.

Past Experience

Previous exposure affects perception.

Memory

Stored images and information used to recognise.

Culture

Cultural background influences what is perceived.

Group

2+ people interacting with shared goals.

Aggregation

A collection without meaningful interaction.

In-group

A group you identify with.

Out-group

A group you don't belong to.

Social Norms

Accepted rules of behaviour.

Social Identity Theory

Identifying with groups affects self-concept.

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort in a group.

Individualist Culture

Focus on personal goals and independence.

Collectivist Culture

Focus on group harmony and interdependence.

Status

Level of importance in a group.

Power

Ability to influence others.

Reward Power

Giving rewards or benefits.

Coercive Power

Using punishment.

Coercive Power

Using punishment. Detention from a teacher.

Legitimate Power

Authority by position. Police officer.

Referent Power

Influence from admiration. Celebrity endorsements.

Expert Power

Power from knowledge. Doctor's advice.

Informational Power

Having useful info others want. Eyewitness to a crime.

Zimbardo (SPE)

Power of roles and situation. Guards became abusive in prison simulation.

Zimbardo: IV / DV

IV: Role (guard/prisoner), DV: Behaviour.

Ethical Issues (SPE)

No informed consent for arrest, harm caused, withdrawal ignored.

Obedience

Following direct orders from authority. Student obeying teacher's instructions.

Milgram Study

To test obedience to authority. Participants gave shocks to learners.

IV / DV (Milgram)

IV: Proximity, DV: Shock level given.

Results (Milgram)

65% obeyed to 450V.

Milgram's Conclusions

People obey even when it causes harm.

Ethical Issues (Milgram)

Deception, psychological harm, no full consent.

Groupthink

Conforming to group for harmony, ignoring alternatives. A group agrees quickly without critical discussion.

Group Polarisation

Group discussion strengthens extreme views. Political beliefs become stronger after group talk.

Deindividuation

Loss of identity in groups, leading to impulsive behaviour. Riots, anonymous online bullying.

Conformity

Changing behaviour to match group norms. Dressing like peers.

Asch Study

To investigate conformity under group pressure. Participants gave wrong answers to fit in.

IV / DV (Asch)

IV: Group responses, DV: Participant's answers.

Results & Conclusions (Asch)

75% conformed at least once. Normative pressure strong.

Legitimacy of Authority

More likely to obey legitimate authority. Doctor giving orders.

Social Proximity

Physical/emotional closeness increases obedience. Victim in same room = less obedience.

Group Pressure

Presence of others doing the same increases conformity. Everyone says wrong answer = you conform.

Group Size

Larger group = more conformity (up to a point). 3+ people increase conformity.

Unanimity

If all agree, you're more likely to conform. One dissenter reduces conformity.

Informational Influence

We conform when unsure and others seem right. New environment, you follow others.

Normative Influence

Conform to be liked or accepted. Laughing at jokes you don't find funny.

Social Loafing

Individuals put in less effort in groups. Letting others lead group projects.

Culture

Collectivist cultures = more conformity. Japanese people conform more than Americans.