The study of animal behaviour and its applications

Ethology

• Ethology = the science of animal behaviour, including:

  • Its causes

  • Its functions

Behaviour is difficult to define precisely

• Definitions change as scientific knowledge changes.

• Behaviour is multidisciplinary.

Simple definition

Behaviour = the internally coordinated actions or inactions of a whole living organism in response to internal and/or external stimuli.

Overall idea

Behaviour involves interactions between:

• The animal's body → bones, muscles, nervous system, etc.

• The outside world → food, enemies, social environment, etc.

Early humans

• Cave paintings from up to 30,000 years ago

• Many paintings showed animals

Aristotle

• Made systematic observations and ideas about animal behaviour

• More than 300 years BC

John Ray (1676)

• Studied instinctive behaviour in birds

American approach

• Used controlled laboratory experiments

• Common animals:

  • Rats

  • Mice

• Focused on:

  • Learning

  • Behaviour acquisition

• Behaviour shaped by:

  • Reinforcement

  • Punishment

Main focus

What do animals do, and how does their behaviour change?

• Evolutionary history and ecological context were often given less emphasis.

European approach

Naturalistic observation

• Animals studied in their natural environments

• Focused on:

  • Instinct

  • Innate behaviour

  • Adaptive behaviour

• Behaviour was studied in relation to:

  • Ecology

  • Evolutionary history

 Tinbergen's Four Questions

Tinbergen developed a framework for studying behaviour.

Question	What does it ask?
Causation	What mechanisms cause the behaviour?
Function	What is the biological function/adaptive significance?
Ontogeny	How does the behaviour develop during an individual's lifetime?
Phylogeny	How did the behaviour evolve across generations/species?

Easy way to remember:

• Causation → What causes it?

• Function → Why is it useful?

• Ontogeny → How does it develop?

• Phylogeny → How did it evolve?

All four questions remain relevant.

 Cognitive Ethology

Traditional behavioural approaches focused mainly on observable behaviour.

However, animals can also:

• Perceive their environment

• Learn from experience

• Remember

• Make decisions

• Solve problems

• Respond flexibly to their environment

Cognitive ethology

• Studies the cognitive processes that may underlie animal behaviour.

Behaviour and Animal Welfare

Behaviour can be used to help assess animal welfare.

Questions to ask:

1. What behaviours does the animal perform?

2. Which behaviours are important to the animal?

3. Can the animal perform those behaviours?

4. What happens when the behaviour is prevented?

5. Are there behavioural indicators of poor welfare?

➡ Behavioural observation can therefore be used as a tool for welfare assessment.

Example: Laying Hens in Cages

Limited space can restrict opportunities to:

• Perch

• Dust-bathe

• Forage

• Move freely

Possible consequences:

• Behavioural frustration

• Changes in motivation

• Stress

• Reduced behavioural opportunities

 Example: High Stocking Density

A floor system may provide more opportunities for movement and behavioural expression than a cage.

However, high stocking density can create other welfare challenges.

Possible consequences:

• Increased competition for resources

• Difficulty avoiding other birds

• Feather pecking

• Cannibalism

Behaviour and Animal Production

Understanding behaviour can help improve animal production.

Farm animals are managed to produce:

• Meat

• Milk

• Eggs

• Fibre

• Other products

Understanding behaviour can help optimize:

• Feeding

• Housing

• Social management

• Weaning

• Grouping

Key idea

Effective management considers how animals naturally behave.

Working With Natural Rhythms

Animals have species-specific patterns of:

• Feeding

• Activity

• Rest

• Social interaction

Feeding management

Can take these natural rhythms into account.

Feeding at an appropriate time may result in:

↑ Feed intake

↑ Feeding efficiency

→ Potentially improved performance

Social Behaviour & Production

Social animals

Feeding animals in groups can:

• Synchronize feeding behaviour

• Support normal social interactions

• Potentially influence feed intake and digestion

Individual housing

May:

• Restrict social interactions

• Negatively affect performance in some social species

Weaning

Weaning = major transition

For piglets, weaning involves changes in:

Nutrition

Milk → solid food

Environment

Familiar → potentially unfamiliar

Social relationships

• Social environment changes

Behaviour

• Behaviour changes

Early or abrupt weaning may cause:

• Reduced feed intake

• Behavioural changes

• Increased stress

• Reduced growth rate

Key idea

How an animal experiences a management transition can influence its performance.

Behavioural Control in Captive Animals

Keeping animals in captivity requires humans to manage their behaviour and environment.

Management may involve:

• Preventing escape

• Controlling reproduction

• Managing movement

• Managing social interactions

• Adapting animals to housing systems

• Controlling access to food and other resources

How is behavioural control achieved?

Direct human actions

Housing and management practices

Technology and equipment

Human–Animal Interactions

Humans are part of the animal's environment.

Farm animals interact with humans throughout their lives.

Researchers study:

• How animals perceive humans

• How animals respond to different types of handling

• How previous experiences influence future responses

• How animals learn to recognize individual humans

Goal

Understanding human–animal interactions can help develop:

• Safer handling

• More predictable handling

• Less stressful handling

Behaviour & Technology

Animal behaviour can help inform the design of:

• Housing systems

• Feeding equipment

• Automated systems

• Handling facilities

• Monitoring technology

Poorly designed equipment may:

• Restrict normal behaviour

• Cause fear or avoidance

• Increase aggression

• Create competition

• Become damaged or dysfunctional

Designing Systems for Social Animals

Animals living in groups establish:

• Social relationships

• Hierarchies

If equipment does not account for these relationships:

• Dominant animals may monopolize resources

• Subordinate animals may be displaced

• Competition may increase

• Aggression and biting may occur

Possible results

Animal injury + equipment damage + reduced system efficiency

When Behaviour Goes Wrong

Poor management and unsuitable environments can contribute to abnormal or undesirable behaviours.

Possible causes:

• Poor housing conditions

• Inadequate resources

• Social instability

• Poor human–animal interactions

• Malfunctioning equipment

• Insufficient behavioural opportunities

Important point

Abnormal behaviour can provide information about an animal's:

• Environment

• Welfare

Example

Weaving and box walking in horses

Managing Behavioural Problems

Before treating abnormal behaviour, we need to understand:

Why did the behaviour develop?

What is the underlying cause?

Environmental Enrichment

Provides opportunities such as:

• Exploring

• Manipulating materials

• Appropriate feeding challenges

• Performing species-typical behaviours

Environmental Modification

Can involve:

• Changing housing

• Increasing access to resources

• Improving social management

Behavioural Training

Can involve:

• Reinforcing desirable behaviours

• Providing alternative behaviours

 Behaviour & Conservation

Many animal species are threatened or declining.

Human activities are major contributors, including:

• Habitat loss

• Hunting

• Pollution

• Climate change

• Introduced species

• Emerging disease

In-situ

Conservation in the natural habitat

Improve conditions so populations can survive and reproduce

Protect habitat and ecological conditions

Behaviour must be compatible with natural environment

Example: protected wild population

Ex-situ

Conservation outside the natural habitat

Animals maintained/bred in human-managed environments

Captive breeding may support population recovery

Behaviour must be maintained in captivity

Example: zoo/conservation breeding program

In-Situ Conservation

Successful conservation requires knowledge of a species' normal behaviour.

Important behaviours include:

• Social structure

• Foraging strategies

• Mating behaviour

• Movement patterns

• Territoriality

• Vigilance

Behaviour as an early-warning system

Changes in normal behaviour may indicate problems.

Normal:

• Movement

• Feeding/foraging

• Territorial behaviour

• Social interactions

Changes may include:

• Movement patterns change

• Increased vigilance

• Territory use changes

• Reduced foraging

• Changes in social behaviour

These changes may indicate changes in:

• Food availability

• Predation risk

• Human disturbance

• Habitat quality

• Disease

• Environmental conditions

 Ex-Situ Conservation

Conservation in captivity

Captive breeding programs can help maintain populations when survival in the wild is difficult.

Captivity is a compromise between:

• The needs of the animal

• Practical constraints of human management

Applied ethology can help determine:

• What social environment does the species need?

• What behaviours should animals be able to perform?

• What type of enclosure is appropriate?

• How should animals be fed?

• How should breeding be managed?

• How can natural behaviours be maintained?

Before Reintroduction

Animals may need to:

• Develop appropriate social skills

• Develop appropriate behavioural skills

• Prepare for natural conditions

Behaviour Throughout Conservation

In the wild

Understand normal behaviour
↓
Detect environmental changes
↓
Identify threats
↓
Improve habitat management

In captivity

Design appropriate environments
↓
Support species-typical behaviour
↓
Improve welfare
↓
Support successful reproduction

Key idea

Successful conservation is not only about keeping animals alive.

It also requires understanding the behaviours animals need to survive and reproduce.

Applied ethology

Uses animal behaviour to address real-world problems involving:

• Animal management

• Animal welfare

• Animal production

• Conservation

Tinbergen's four questions:

• Causation

• Ontogeny

• Function

• Phylogeny

Behaviour is connected to:

• Welfare

• Health

• Production

• Reproduction

• Conservation

Understanding behaviour helps us:

• Design better housing

• Improve management practices

• Improve human–animal interactions

• Design better technologies

• Prevent/manage behavioural problems