psychopathology EOT

define statistical infrequency

When an individual has a less common characteristic

what is an example of statistical infrequency

IQ and intellectual disability disorder

Define deviation from social norms

behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in society

why are social norms not always the same around the world

different social norms are created by different cultures

what is an example of deviation from social norms

antisocial personality disorder or psychopathy as they do not conform to moral standards

what are the ao3 points for statistical infrequency

strength - real world application

. can be used clinically to diagnose and assess severity of symptoms

limitation - unusual characteristics are not always negative

. for someone who has an exceptionally high IQ labelling them as abnormal could be distressing to everyday life

what are the ao3 points for deviation from social norms

strength - real world application

. can be used clinically to diagnose mental disorders such as antisocial personality disorder

limitation - cultural relativism

. it cannot account for the variability between cultural norms

. what's normal in one culture might not be in another

Define failure to function adequately and a basic and example

when someone is unable to cope with the demands of ordinary life

maintaining basic hygiene standards

or be able to hold down a job

give an example of failure to function adequately

intellectual disability disorder very low IQ

what are the ao3 points for failure to function adequately

Strength - Real World Application

. Can be used clinically to identify when individuals need professional help

. research shows 25% of people in the UK experience a mental health issue in a year

Limitation - discrimination / Social Control

. Its difficult to distinguish between someone who is dysfunctional and who is simply living outside social norms

. People with non-standard lifestyles may be unfairly judged as failing to function leading to misdiagnosis, discrimination

define deviation from ideal mental health

Failing to have any one of the above criteria for good mental health

give an example of deviation from ideal mental health

low self esteem

what are the 8 parts to Jahoda's criteria for deviating from idea mental health

. no symptoms or distress.

. being rational

. striving to reach our potential

. coping with stress.

. having a realistic view of the world.

. having good self-esteem

. being independent

. We can successfully work

what are the ao3 points for deviation from ideal mental health

Strength - A Comprehensive Definition

. The criteria incorporates a wide range of factors that contribute to overall well-being.

Limitation - May Be Culture-Bound

Jahoda's criteria are based on Western ideals and doesn't account for other cultures

define phobia

An irrational fear of an object or situation

define Specific phobia and give an example

. phobia of an object, such as an animal or body part, or a situation

such as having an injection.

define social phobia and give an example

phobia of a social situation such as public speaking

define Agoraphobia

phobia of being outside or in a public place

explain the 3 behavioral responses to phobias

Panic

. panic in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus

Avoidance

. making an effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus.

Endurance

. when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus

explain the 3 emotional responses to phobias

Anxiety

. an unpleasant state of high arousal which makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion

Fear

. the immediate and extremely unpleasant experience when thinking about or experiencing the phobic stimulus

. Emotional response is unreasonable

The anxiety or fear is much greater than is 'normal'

explain the 3 cognitive responses to phobias

Selective attention to the phobic stimulus

. If a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it.

Irrational beliefs

. A person with a phobia may have irrational thoughts in relation to phobic stimulus

Cognitive distortions

. the perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate

define depression

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

what are the 3 behavioural characteristics of depression

. reduced energy levels

. disruption of sleep (insomnia) and a decrease or increase in eating behaviour

. aggression and self harm

what are the 3 emotional characteristics of depression

. low mood

. anger

. low self esteem

what are the 3 cognitive characteristics of depression

. lack of concentration

. dwelling on negative thoughts

. a black and white way of thinking

define OCD

obsessive thought and compulsive behaviours

what are the 3 behavioral characteristics of OCD

. repeating of compulsions

. reduction in anxiety after compulsions

. avoidance of triggers

what are the 3 emotional characteristics of OCD

. anxiety

. depression

. guilt

what are the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD

. obsessive thoughts

. coping mechanisms

. insight into anxiety - people with OCD know their thoughts are irrational

what model is used to explain phobias

2 process model

how does the 2 process model explain phobias

the phobias is acquired through classical conditioning

the phobia is maintained through operant conditioning of negative reinforcement - avoidance

explain how little albert developed his phobia

NS - white rat no response

UCS - bang of metal bars UCR - fear

UCS + NS UCR - fear

white rat + bang of metal fear

CS - white rat CR - fear

albert became scared of white furry objects

explain how phobias are maintained

they are maintained by negative reinforcement as when they avoid the phobia the anxiety is reduced and the person never faces their phobia

what are the AO3 points for explaining phobias

Strength - Real-World Application

. it explains how phobias are maintained which is key in developing effective treatments (systematic desensitisation)

Limitation - Cognitive Aspects of Phobias

. focuses solely on observable behaviour, ignoring the cognitive components of phobias (irrational beliefs)

Strength - Link Between Phobias and Traumatic Experiences

. research evidence shows that traumatic experiences can lead to phobias

describe the process of systematic desensitisation

1. a anxiety hierarchy is established from least to most frightening

2. the therapist teaches them how to relax as it is not possible for sympathetic and parasympathetic to be active at the same time (RECIPRICOL INHIBITION)

3. the patient is exposed to the phobia in a relaxed state

what are the AO3 points for SD

Strength - Evidence of Effectiveness

. SD has strong supporting evidence

. SD is a reliable and effective treatment for phobias.

Strength - People with Learning Disabilities

. SD is well-suited for people with learning disabilities, who may also suffer from phobias

. highly applicable in clinical settings for a wide range of patients

describe the process of flooding

where the patient is exposed to the phobia without any build up until they learn the phobic stimulus is harmless this is called extinction

what are the AO3 points for flooding

Strength - Cost-Effective

. systematic desensitisation may require lots of sessions, flooding can be effective in just one session.

Limitation - Traumatic

. highly traumatic nature

. This raises ethical concerns and contributes to high dropout rates or attrition

what are the 3 components to beck theory of depression

. faulty information processing (only focus on negative)

. negative self schema (thoughts about themselves)

. the negative triad

what are the 3 components of becks negative triad

negative views of the self, the world and the future

what are the AO3 points for becks negative triad

Strength - Research Support

. the model is supported by strong evidence.

. This supports the validity

Strength - Real-World Application

. the model has valuable real-world uses in treatment.

. This shows that the model is clinically useful in both prevention and treatment.

what is Ellis's definition of irrational thoughts

thoughts that don't allow us to be happy or free of pain

what are the components of Ellis's ABC model

. activating event

. irrational beliefs

. consequences

what are two examples of irrational beliefs

musterbation - the belief that we must always succeed

utopianism - the belief that the world is fair

what are the AO3 points of Ellis's model

Strength - Real-World Application

. Ellis's model forms the basis of REBT a treatment for depression it works by challenging irrational beliefs

. This shows that Ellis's model has real-world value

Limitation - Reactive and Endogenous Depression

. Ellis's ABC model only explains reactive depression (triggered by external life events)

. many people experience endogenous depression, which occurs with no clear cause

. This means Ellis's explanation can only account for some types of depression

describe CBT

a type of therapy that challenges negative thoughts through cognitive and behavioural techniques

patients may be set homework

how does becks theory relate to CBT

the therapist challenges the negative triad

the patient is often referred to as the scientist as they investigate their own thoughts

what was ellis treatments for depression

REBT (rational emotional behavioural therapy)

where irrational thoughts are challenged

what is the extension of Ellis's model

extended to ABCDE

D - dispute irrational thoughts

E - effect

what are the AO3 points for CBT

Strength - Evidence for Effectiveness

. research shows CBT is highly affective

. Therefore CBT is the first-choice treatment in many healthcare systems, such as the NHS.

Limitation - Suitability for Diverse Clients

. CBT may not be suitable for people with severe depression or those with learning disabilities.

. therefore CBT lacks applicability to a range of patients

Limitation - Relapse Rates

. CBT has been criticised for high relapse rates after treatment ends.

. This suggests CBT may require ongoing or repeated sessions to maintain improvements - costing more

why are drug therapies used for OCD

it is associated with low levels of seratonin

define neurotransmitter

a chemical that carries messages between neurons

what does SSRI stand for

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

how do SSRIs work

they block reuptake of serotonin and stimulate the post synaptic neuron

what is the most common SSRI and what is the typical daily dosage

fluoxetine and 20mg

what is most commonly combined with SSRIs

CBT

what are 2 alternatives to SSRIs

Tricyclics and SNRIs

what does SNRI stand for

Serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor

what are the AO3 points for biological treatments for OCD

Evidence of effectiveness - Real-world application

. here is strong evidence that SSRIs reduce OCD symptom severity and improve quality of life

. therefore means drug treatments are effective for the majority of OCD patients.

Cost-effective/non-disruptive - Real-world application

. Drug treatments are cheap and people can take them without having to invest time in therapy

. therefore the drug treatments popular with both patients and doctors

Serious side-effects - Limitation

. Some people experience distressing side-effects such as blurred vision, indigestion, and loss of sex drive.

. This can reduce quality of life which can limit compliance