AP Euro Unit 7 Notes: National Unification and the Age of Imperial Expansion

Nationalism

The belief that people sharing a common identity (often language, history, and culture) should have political unity and self-government, ideally in their own state.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

Post-Napoleonic diplomatic settlement that aimed to restore conservative monarchies and balance of power in Europe, often clashing with nationalist movements.

Liberal Nationalism

A form of nationalism that links national self-determination with constitutional government, rights, and representative institutions.

Conservative Nationalism

A form of nationalism used to strengthen the monarchy and state power, often prioritizing order and unity over democratic reform.

Exclusionary Nationalism

Nationalism that defines the nation in ethnic terms and marginalizes minorities or outsiders, rather than emphasizing inclusive citizenship.

Realpolitik

Pragmatic, power-focused politics that prioritizes practical goals and state interests over ideological purity; key to 19th-century unification efforts.

Piedmont-Sardinia

The leading Italian state that drove unification through modernization, diplomacy, and war under Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist and republican who promoted a unified, democratic Italy (e.g., through Young Italy); many of his uprisings were suppressed.

Count Camillo di Cavour

Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who advanced Italian unification through diplomacy, economic modernization, and war aimed at removing Austrian influence.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Charismatic soldier-revolutionary who led volunteer forces to conquer southern Italy and then transferred control to Victor Emmanuel II to advance unification.

Red Shirts

Garibaldi’s volunteer fighters who played a major role in the military conquest of southern Italy during unification.

Expedition of the Thousand (1860)

Garibaldi’s campaign in which a volunteer force conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, enabling southern Italy to join the unification process.

Kingdom of Italy (proclaimed 1861)

The new Italian state created under the Piedmontese monarchy; political unification came before full social/regional integration.

German Confederation

A loose association of German states created in 1815, dominated mainly by Austria and Prussia, and a key context for later German unification.

Zollverein

Prussian-led customs union that reduced internal German tariffs and strengthened economic ties and Prussia’s influence, making political unity more plausible.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian minister-president (from 1862) who pursued German unity on Prussian terms using Realpolitik, diplomacy, and limited wars.

Danish War (1864)

Conflict in which Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein; it increased Prussia–Austria tensions and set up the next war.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

War in which Prussia defeated Austria, pushing Austria out of German affairs and enabling Prussian-led political restructuring in the north.

North German Confederation

Prussian-dominated federation formed after 1866 that unified northern German states and served as a stepping stone to a full German empire.

Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)

War with France that rallied southern German states to Prussia; it culminated in the proclamation of a unified German Empire.

German Empire (proclaimed 1871)

Unified German state created under Prussian leadership after victory over France; it significantly shifted Europe’s balance of power.

New Imperialism

Late-19th-century surge (c. 1870s–1914) of European territorial expansion in Africa and Asia, driven by industrial, strategic, political, and ideological forces.

Social Darwinism

Ideology that misapplied “survival of the fittest” to human societies to justify imperial domination and racial hierarchy.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

Meeting where European powers set rules for claiming African territory (including “effective occupation”), formalizing partition without African representation.

Spheres of Influence

Regions where a foreign power holds privileged economic rights and influence without full political annexation (commonly used to describe imperial pressure in China).