PSY 215 Exam 4

Types of Memory

Sematic

Episodic

Procedural 

Sematic memory

memory of general knowledge/facts

Episodic memory

memory for events

Procedural memory

memory of “how-to…”

Testing memory methods

recognition

recall

Recognition

present something then see if someone recognizes it

Recall

the ability to bring something back out of long term memory

Types of encoding processes/memory strategies

Rehearsal

Organization/Categorization

Elaboration

Rehearsal

Saying things over & over again

Recency effect

remember things at end better than beginning bc closest in time of memory testing 

Primacy effect

remember things at beginning better than end bc cognitive load is lighter 

Organization/Categorization

organizing requires some sort of knowledge base to figure out that categories —> cost limited knowledge

Elaboration

attaching new info to things you aldry have knowledge about

cost the most resources to find connections but has biggest payoff

Memory palace

mapping out a space that’s familiar & connecting memory cue to each space

Issues with strategy use

Production deficiency

Utilization deficiency

we need to keep practicing memory strategies to make them automatic 

Production deficiency

when strategy is new, we might forget to use it 

Utilization deficiency

when strategy is new, it’ll cost more energy when we first start

Scripts

things that happen for common experiences 

this is a type of domain specific knowledge which give us structure 

False recognition

failure of scripts

when you expect something to happen, but it doesn’t

Fuzzy trace theory

Verbatim vs Gist memory

as we grow up, we develop 2 systems in parallel

Verbatim

exact details of a memory

Gist memory

develops the most as we grow

gist of details, supported by scripts

Infantile amnesia 

our earliest memories that are our own actual memories start at 3-4 yo bc…

• Synaptogenesis

• Verbal skill

• Story-telling Understanding

• Understanding of self

Synaptogenesis

takes 18months-2years of ago to increase, therefore, we didn’t have system to store memories before that

Hippocampus

spatial memory

Prefrontal cortex

resoning, decision making

Verbal skills

we experience infantile amnesia bc we couldn’t store memories verbally until 3-5yo 

Story-telling understanding 

we didn’t have exposure to chorological order of stories

sense of “Does this story make sense?” 

Understanding of self

in order to be motivated to store memories, one must realize that those memories are unique to yourself

Executive function

is the combination of attention & memories 

Speed of processing

Cognitive flexibility

Inhibitory control

Planning 

Cognitive flexibility

ability to change the way we think about something

Inhibitory control

ability to prevent yourself from doing something 

Preservation 

your brain still does/think/say what you’ve normally done/thought/said

Piaget

known for his theory that infants are actively participating in their own cognitive development

Schemas 

organized bodies of knowledge 

starts building as soon as you’re born 

Disequilibrium

our recognition of something new

Assimilation

when we recognize that something new can fit into an existing schema

Accommodation

when we recognize that something new doesn’t fit into a schema, therefore, we change the schema

Piaget’s Stages

defined by different accomplishments

• Sensorimotor Stage 

• Preoperational Stage 

• Concrete Operational Stage 

• Formal Operational Stage 

Sensorimotor stage

birth-2yo

Accomplishments: 

• Object Permanence 

• Deferred imitation 

Object Permanence

appears at 8-9 months

things still exists when it no longer can be seen (peekaboo) 

first steps for memory 

Deferred imitation

appears at 18-24 months

watch and imitate an action in a specific context despite time lapse

Preoperational stage

2-7yo

Accomplishments:

• Operations

• Semiotic function 

Limitation:

• Egocentrism 

• Lack of Conservation

Operations

mental actions/processes that follow systematic/logical rules

Semiotic functions

symbolism (abilities for kids to work w/symbols)

EX: pretend play

Egocentrism

inability to separate your experiences from others

can’t appreciate different opinions of other ppl

Spatial/Visual Perspective taking

can’t understand that things look different from other ppl’s perspective 

Theory of Mind/False-belief

ability to think about what another person is thinking 

Lack of Conservation

something can look one way but actually be something else 

• centration 

• focus on states

• lack of reversibility

Centration

kids focus sm on one aspect of a situation that they ignore others aspects

Focus on states

focus sm on the here & now, not thinking abt the past 

Lack of reversibility

can’t think backwards

Multi-store models

1. Environmental input 

2. Sensory memory 

3. Working/Short-term memory 

4. Long term memory 

Sensory memory

info from environment first enter (by senses)

holds info very briefly

EX: someone flashes a photo & you can still see it briefly after its gone

Working/short-term memory

info that caught your attention —> actively processed and temporarily held

EX: someone repeating phone number —> you repeat in head long enough to type it out

Long-term memory

info stored for lifetime

EX: knowing how to ride a bike

Development in store models

increases structure size and efficiency of processing

Limited resources model

memory & attention are limited by a finite amount of cognitive resources 

everything happens simultaneously (no specific space for long term memory) 

Cognitive energy 

similar to credit card limit 

EX: new material will cost more energy until you practice it enough to decrease that cost to perform it

Automaticity

ability to turn off brain as you do something 

EX: driving 

Attention

mental process of focusing on certain info

• selective attention 

• sustained attention 

Selective attention

ability to block out irrelevant info

improves within first 6 years 

Sustained attention 

ability to continuously focus on one thing 

improves most in middle childhood years (9-11 years) 

Reticular activating system 

part of old brain that’s important selective information and habituation

Prefrontal cortex

important for decision making, impulse control, and sustained attention

Complexity of interests

cognitive development improves as we have the ability to develop new interests

ADHD 

attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder 

more likely diagnose at 5-7yo 

we all have decreased attention for topics we have lower interests for

ADHA Diagnosis requirements

6+ symptoms for 5-16yo

5 symptoms for +17yo

symptoms present for +6months

symptoms present in multiple settings 

symptoms have no other mental issues that might cause this 

ADHA Symptoms

inattention

hyperactivity

types of ADHD

inattentive presentation

hyperactive presentation

combined presentation

Potential causes of ADHD

genetics

less activity in prefrontal cortex

not enough neurotransmitters produced or not effectively used

Teratogens

Neurotransmitters for ADHD 

norepinephrine (stress hormone) 

dopamine (reward/motivation hormone) 

Treatments for ADHD

cognitive and behavior therapies

• setting alarms

• using planners

stimulants

• used to replace dopamine and norepinephrine

Classification

kids cannot be flexible with thinking of classification (a fact that something can fit into multiple categories) 

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years old

Achievement:

• Overcome ecocentrism

• Conservation achieved

Cognitive limitation:

• Logical thinking

• Artificialism

Logical thinking

If something is true, children get stuck in that truth

EX: “if hit glass with hammer, glass breaks —> glass breaks when hit with hammer VS if hit glass with feather, glass breaks —> glass doesn’t break bc feather is soft” A

Artificialism 

real belief that we can do things to control events we rly have no control over 

Formal Operational Stage

Adolescence

Achievement: 

• Abstract thinking 

• Hypothetico-Deductive reasoning

Limitations: 

• Imaginary audience 

• Personal fable 

Abstract reasoning 

the ability to think abstractly 

EX: “what should I do in the future” 

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning 

the ability to think rationally about steps to achieve a certain goal 

Imaginary audience

belief that other people are paying attention more than ppl actually are (“everyone’s watching”)

Personal fable

a teenager believes their own experiences, feelings, and thoughts are unique

they are special, invincible, and different from everyone else

Vygotsky

states that cognitive development is supported by ppl around us (schemas are built by the ppl around us) via scaffolding and skilled collaborators

Scaffolding

kids learn new things by receiving support/teaching from ppl who alrdy know how to do the tasks until the kid becomes accomplished at task

Skilled collaborators

ppl with the knowledge

Zone of proximal Development

The space between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance from another

Private speech 

inner dialogue of the steps to achieve a task 

Theory of core knowledge

humans are born with innate knowledge of fundamental aspects of the world

• Object permanence/Representations (the ability of basic capabilities of memory)

• Gravity

• Movement of objects