AP Psych Unit 1

nature

• genes and hereditary

  • physical appearance

  • personality characters

nurture

environmental variables

• childhood experiences 

• how we were raised 

• social relationship

• surrounding culture

heredity

the genetic passing of characteristics between generations

environment

all non-genetic influences on behavior

• prenatal nutrition

• people around us

genes

segments of DNA that provide us the “biological instructions for life”

• Ex: one gene might code for eye color, so our cells use it to create green pigment for our eyes

genetic predisposition

increased chance of developing a given trait based on your genetic makeup 

example of psychological genetic predisposition

mental health disorders, personality

example of biological genetic predisposition

eye color, height, lifespan, hair texture

example of medical genetic predisposition

heart disease, asthma, cancer

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

what environmental factors might affect gene expression? 

prenatal environment, stimulation, socialization, nutrition, traumatic experiences 

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences of gene expression that occur with DNA change

interaction

the effect of one factor (environment) depends on another factor (heredity)

what is one of the best ways to study the nature vs. nurture question?

twin studies

how do identical twins develop?

from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, so they are genetically identical

how do fraternal twins develop?

from two separate fertilized eggs, so they are as genetically close as siblings and share a fetal environment

what theory is evolutionary psychology based on?

natural selection

what is natural selection?

organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully than others

what is the evolutionary perspective?

explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success

what is an example of a way that people use the evolutionary perspective to discriminate against others?

eugenics 

eugenics

(eu: good + genics: genes) selectively mating people with “desirable” traits

what does eugenics aim to do? 

reduce human suffering by “breeding out” disease, disabilities and “undesirable” characteristics from the human population 

what’s an example of bad use of eugenics?

the holocaust

nervous system 

bodily system that sends messages back and forth between the brain and the body 

what parts of the body does the nervous system involve and what does it allow us to do?

involves the brain, spinal cord, and a complex nerve network / allows us to move, breathe, think, have sensory experiences, etc.

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord / spinal cord is the “pathway” from the CNS to the PNS

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons / regulates basic bodily functions (HR, breathing) / nerves 

nerves

cord-like structures that conduct electrical impulses through the body / connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

what are the two types of peripheral nervous systems? 

skeletal (somatic) and autonomic

peripheral NS - skeletal (somatic)

• voluntary body movements

• bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments

• walk, run, dance, swim

peripheral NS - autonomic

• involuntary processes

• controls glands and muscles of internal organs

• heart rate, digestion, arousal, blood pressure

what are the two autonomic nervous systems? 

sympathetic and parasympathetic

autonomic NS - sympathetic

• “fight or flight”

• arouse body in stressful situations

• delivers blood to parts of the body that need more oxygen to get out of a dangerous situation

autonomic NS - parasympathetic

• “rest and digest”

• calms the body to conserve energy

• relax and recover from fight or flight

biological perspective 

how psychological issues are impacted by biological processes  

neuron

nerve cell

what is the smallest part of the nervous system / its “building blocks”?

neurons

how do neurons communicate?

they send and receive signals

about how many neurons are in the human brain?

100 billion

how many neurons could a single neuron be connected to? 

10,000

dendrites

receive messages from other cells

axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

myelin sheath 

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

neural impulse

electrical signal traveling down the axon

cell body

the cell’s life-support center

terminal branches 

form junctions with other cells

what’s another name for sensory neurons?

afferent neurons and efferent neurons

afferent neurons

receive information for sensory receptors and send information to the brain to be processed

efferent neurons 

sends information from the brain to the body and tells our body how to move 

interneurons

part of the central nervous system and connects signals between sensory and motor neurons

reflex arc

three types of neurons work together in the spinal cord to control reflexes

what three neurons are used in the reflex arc?

afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneuron 

glial cells

brain cell that supports cells by providing structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport

schwann cells

a type of glial cell that builds myelin in the peripheral nervous system

multiple sclerosis (MS)

chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin, causing numbness, weakness, trouble walking, and other motor difficulties 

neural transmission

electrical communication process between neurons and it allows us to think, move, breathe, and experience sensation

synaptic gap 

space between the terminal button and dendrite of two neurons 

synapse 

connection between two neurons 

resting potential

when there is no electricity flowing through the neuron and the neuron is “at rest” meaning it is ready for an electrical charge at any time

resting potential number

-70 mV

depolarization numbers 

-70 mV, -65 mV, -60 mV, -55 mV

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (-55 mV)

action potential

when the level of stimulation reaches the threshold and the neural impulse travels through the neuron (+40 mV)

all-or-nothing law 

neurons fire at one strength and intensity (there is no such thing as a strong action potential - it happens or it doesn’t) 

when will a neuron fire?

when it reaches the -55mV threshold

refractory period

time post-firing in which another action potential cannot occur while the neuron rests

neurotransmitters 

chemical messengers that travel across the synaptic gap between neurons 

where do neurotransmitters bind to? 

receptor sites on the receiving neuron to continue the message

excitatory neurotransmitter

stimulate neuron firing (fire more frequently and send messages faster) 

inhibitory neurotransmitter 

slow neuron firing (messages communicated more slowly) 

the eight neurotransmitters

acetylcholine, dopamine, endorphins, GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, serotonin, substance p

abbreviation for acetylcholine 

ACh 

acetylcholine

excitatory neurotransmitter that plays a role in learning, memory, attention, and triggers muscle contraction

what occurs when there’s an oversupply of acetylcholine?

muscle spasms (muscles moving when you don’t want them to) 

what occurs when there’s an undersupply of acetylcholine?

alzheimer’s disease 

alzheimer’s disease

progressive neurological disease that causes brain cell death, leading to problems with memory, thinking, and behavior changes

alzheimer’s disease symptoms 

memory loss, social withdrawal, difficulties planning, confusion of time and place, misplacing belongings, difficulty concentrating, mood swings, difficulty solving simple tasks 

myasthenia gravis

the body makes antibodies that block/destroy receptor site for ACh and fewer receptor sites = muscles get fewer nerve signals making movement more difficult

myasthenia gravis symptoms

muscle weakness, eyelid droopiness, double vision, impaired speech, difficulty swallowing, changes in facial expression, trouble breathing

abbreviation for dopamine 

DA 

dopamine

excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter that is responsible for reward and pleasure and influences movement, learning, and attention

what occurs when there’s an oversupply of dopamine?

schizophrenia 

schizophrenia

disorder associated with a loss of touch from reality

what occurs when there’s an undersupply of dopamine?

parkinson’s disease

parkinson’s disease 

loss of dopamine neurons causes tremors, slowed movement, muscle rigidity, and other movement change

symptoms of schizophrenia

delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech

delusions

false beliefs about reality with no basis in fact

hallucinations 

sensory experiences in the absence of external stimulation (can affect any of the senses) 

disorganized thinking/speech

difficulty organizing thoughts making speech hard to follow

how long must you have symptoms to be diagnosed with schizophrenia?

1+ month

positive symptoms 

a behavior, thought, or feeling that’s not typically present, adding something to a person’s experience 

delusions of persecution

someone it out to get you

delusions of grandeur

especially impressive/important

word salad 

incomprehensible speech or writing; a jumbled mix of words and phrases with no logical connection 

catatonia

muscular rigidity, bizarre posture, and reduction in movement

negative symptoms

decrease in or absence of typical behaviors, emotions, or thoughts

examples of negative symptoms 

monotone voice, minimal facial expressions, absence of body language, appearing emotionally detached