Govt. and Politics of the EU- Exam 1

How are elections held in Belgium?

People elect the parliament, which consists of the chamber of representatives and the senate. The chamber of representatives holds political power and elects the government. 150 seats In chamber represent the population, and are divided into 11 electoral districts. Representation in chamber is based on language. The chamber is elected using a system of proportional representation.

What is the difference between proportional representation and first-past-the post?

proportional representation: candidates stand for office on a party list. voters will vote for that party, and the percentage of the overall vote that party gets is the percentage of seats in parliament they receive. i.e. 30% of overall votes gets 30% of the seats in parliament. first-past-the post is essentially winner-take-all. Even if a candidate receives 49% of the votes, they do not receive any political power, thereby losing the election.

What is a government?

A government is the Head of Government and the Ministers of the Government.

How is a government elected?

The Chamber of Representatives elects the government by a simple majority (76/150 deputies).

How are coalitions formed?

After an election, the King appoints a Formateur. Normally, the leader of a party with the largest number of seats in Parliament. The role of the Formateur is to form a coalition. They do this by negotiating with other parties to support one government. They also find idealogical common ground upon which the parties can govern and distribute ministerial positions.

Why are coalitions formed when electing a government?

Helps to govern more effectively, reach majority, agree on common policies, and share power. This fosters a stable government that can govern effectively.

What does the expression “a government falling” mean?

The government is no longer the majority in Parliament/no longer enjoys the support of the majority of Members of Parliament.

What does the expression “a minority government” mean?

A minority government is one that lacks a majority of ministerial posts in parliament and can only pass laws if enough opposition members abstain or support it. It is fragile and depends on the opposition’s willingness to allow it to govern.

What function does the Belgian Senate serve?

The senate serves as a constitutional check on the chamber but, only for linguistic and constitutional issues. So they do not handle criminal laws, federal budget, taxes, etc.

What is a federal state?

Federal states have multiple sources of constitutional authority. Each level of government has its own constitutional authority that bestows competences upon them. Higher levels of government may not take away the constitutional powers entrusted to lower levels of government.

What is a unitary state?

A unitary state has a single source of constitutional authority. Lower governments exist only if allowed by the central government, which can take back any powers it gives.

What is a Head of State?

A head of state represents the state. They typically do not have political power, but in 5 member states they do.

What is a Head of Government?

Heads of government represent the government and by definition they always hold political power.

How do Parliamentary Democracies work?

In a pure parliamentary democracy, there is a clear separation between head of government (political power) and head of state (no power).

How do Semi-Parliamentary (or Semi-Presidential) Democracies work?

Political power is divided between the head of state and head of government. Both can exercise it.

How do Presidential Democracies work?

In presidential democracies the head of state is the head of government. (US)

what is the ECSC, how did it work, what did it do, and why was it created?

The goal was to create a common market in coal and steel between France, Germany, and other interested countries. The member states would determine the rules governing the common market. A “high authority” would supervise/regulate this common market according to these rules, and possess supranational powers to ensure that the rules are respected. Concept became a reality in 1952. OG members Belgium, France, Germany, NL, Luxembourg, and Italy. Was created to Ensure peace in Europe, tie nations economically (less likely for war), rebuild Europe after WWII, and Lay the foundation for deeper European unity.

what the EDC was, why it was negotiated, and what it was intended to do?

EDC is the European Defense community, and the goal was to have a common european army and a European minister of Defense. Monnet believed this was going too far, and that Europe should concentrate on economics. He proposed extending the Common Market through two treaties: The European Economic Community and The European Atomic Energy Community.

what the EEC was, how it worked, what it did, and why it was created?

The European Economic Community. A European economic organization for integration and cooperation. Promote peace, economic growth, and prevent conflict through unity. Customs Union: Remove all tariffs, quotas, and trade barriers between themselves (free trade within the group). Apply a common external tariff (CET) on goods imported from non-member countries. Helped create a single, unified market, enabled coordinated economic growth and price stability. Established through Treaty of Rome.

what Euratom is, what it does, and why it was created.

European Atomic Energy Community. European countries work together to develop and use nuclear energy for non-military purposes — such as electricity generation, medical applications, and scientific research — while ensuring it is done safely, legally, and responsibly. It was created in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome. Common market achieved.

what the Single European Act was, how it worked, what it did, and why it was created?

The Single European Act is a treaty that created the single market. Single market= the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. All non-tariff barriers to immigration were eliminated. The treaty contained concrete legislative goals to eliminate all non-tariff barriers to trade and a legislative time table for achieving those goals.

what the Maastricht Treaty was, how it worked, what it did, and why it was created?

AKA the Treaty on European Union, created the economic and monetary union (Euro), the Common Foreign and Security Policy, created the legal basis for cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs, and renamed the European Community to the European Union. The Maastricht Treaty was created to deepen European integration and strengthen the union.Needed to structure the post-Cold War European order.

what the Lisbon Treaty is, was, how it works, what it does, and why it was created?

The EU had earlier tried to make a Constitution, but it was rejected by voters in some countries. So instead, they took most of the same changes, put them into the Treaty of Lisbon, and passed it. In Ireland, they first rejected it (2008). Then, after some changes and promises were made, they voted yes in a second vote (2009). It improved decision-making and gave more power to elected bodies like the European Parliament, and gave the EU a stronger voice in the world (created clear and strong leadership roles).

What role did Monnet play in the development of the EU?

He created the plan (behind scenes) for the European Coal and Steel Community, and laying the foundation for what later became the European Union. He became the first president of high authority.

The Schuman Declaration (1950):

A proposal to place French and German coal and steel production under a shared authority.

What role did Schuman play in the development of the EU?

French Foreign Minister and experienced politician. Presented the Schuman Declaration in 1950, proposing the European Coal and Steel Community publicly and politically.

What role did Adenauer play in the development of the EU?

Konrad Adenauer helped build the foundation of the European Union by leading Germany into peaceful cooperation with Europe, especially France, and fully supporting the early European institutions like the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community.

What role did Spaak play in the development of the EU?

Paul-Henri Spaak played a key role in designing the plan for a common European market and helped create the EEC and Euratom, laying the foundation for today’s European Union.He was a key architect of the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom, both established by the Treaty of Rome.

Treaty of Paris (1951):

Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) between six countries (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg) to regulate industrial production jointly and prevent future conflict.

Pleven Plan (1950):

A French proposal to create a European Defence Community (EDC) with a joint army under supranational control. (failed)

Treaty of Rome (1957):

Created the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom, promoting a common market and cooperation in nuclear energy among member states.

Single European Act Treaty (1987):

Contained concrete legislative goals to eliminate all non-tariff barriers to trade and a legislative timetable for achieving those goals. Single market= the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor.

Maastricht Treaty/Treaty of European Union (1993):

Formally created the European Union, introduced EU citizenship, and set the path for Economic and Monetary Union (including the Euro).

Schengen Agreement (1995):

A separate agreement (later integrated into EU law) that abolished border controls between participating European countries. Enabled free movement of people.

The Amsterdam Treaty (1999):

Made structural institutional changes to the EU to strengthen the ability of the EU to agree upon common policies in CFSP and police and judicial cooperation.

Nice Treaty (2003):

Reorganized EU institutions and voting rules to prepare for the 2004 enlargement.

Treaty of Lisbon (2009):

Strengthened the EU’s governance and its ability to act internally and externally. Strengthed the European Parliament and created new roles.

What is the European Union?

The European Union is a legal, contractual relationship among 27 member states. They agree to legal, contractual commitments to the other member states called the Treaties. Therefore, the European Union is its member states acting through the EU institutions. EU is a 28th set of rules for 27 countries.

What “bestows competence” upon the EU to act in a policy area?

The EU institutions can only act if there is a “legal basis” in either the Treaty on the European Union (TEU) or Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU). Legal Basis= the treaty article under which the policy decision is taken or legislative act is adopted.

exclusive competencies

Only the EU can make laws. Member states cannot act independently. However, each member state still has a vote. Legislation cannot be adopted without the approval of the majority of member states.

shared competencies

Both the EU and member states can make laws, but EU laws have priority.

supporting competencies

The EU can help or encourage, but member states have the final say and control.

What is the relationship and division of policy competencies between the EU and its member states?

The EU has a hybrid nature. In all areas except foreign policy, member states have agreed that the institutions they created will have supranational authority. The member states must consent to new commitments, obligations, and rights before they can be adopted. Sovereignty is shared with other member states. In foreign policy, the EU is intergovernmental (each country keeps full control over its own decisions) member states fully retain their sovereignty, and unless they all agree, nothing happens.

How is the European Commission appointed/elected?

A: Two-step process:

1. President of the Commission:

   • Proposed by the European Council (by qualified majority).

   • Must be approved by the European Parliament (majority vote).

   • Process guided by Treaty of Nice.

2. Commissioners (1 per member state, 26 total):

   • Each member state nominates a candidate (after consulting with the president-designate).

   • President-designate assigns portfolios (policy areas).

   • Parliament holds hearings on nominees.

   • Parliament votes to approve the full College of Commissioners.(5-year term, can be re-appointed or re-elected)

   • European Commission formally appoints the College.

why and how has the appointment of the Commission become contentious between
Council and Parliament?(i.e. the spitzkandidaten dispute.)

Main point of contention: Who has the real power to choose the President of the European Commission?

• In 2014 disagreement over Article 17 of the EU Treaty.

• Parliament introduced the spitzkandidaten process—each party picks a lead candidate for President, and the Parliament wants the Council to choose the Parliament’s top candidate.

• In 2019, the Council ignored the spitzkandidaten process and chose their own candidate (Von der Leyen), which upset Parliament.

• In 2024, the process partially aligned again when Von der Leyen was nominated as spitzkandidat and re-elected by Parliament.

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What are the commission’s portfolios and why are they important?

Portfolios are the policy area that the commissioner will be responsible for. This clarifies their responsibilities and ensures the Commission works efficiently by dividing tasks. It also shapes EU policy priorities and helps hold Commissioners accountable.

what are the responsibilities/competencies of the President of the European Commission?

• Sets the Commission’s political guidelines and direction

• Organizes the Commission internally

• Appoints Vice Presidents (except the High Representative for Foreign Affairs)

• Assigns portfolios to Commissioners

• Resolves disputes over responsibilities

• Represents the Commission to other EU bodies and globally

• Oversees the General Secretariat

• Acts as primus inter pares (first among equals)

Who is the president of the European Commission and what are her priorities for the incoming commission?

The current president of the European Commission is Ursula von der Leyen. Her priorities for the incoming commission are:

• A new European prosperity plan

• A new era for European Defense and security

• Supporting people, strengthening our societies, and our social model

• Sustaining our quality of life: food security, water, and nature

• Protecting democracy and upholding European values

• A global Europe: leveraging power and partnerships

• Delivering together and preparing the union for the future

What is the role of the vice president and commissioner groups?

VP- Executive VPs are expected to work with each of the relevant Commissioners to advance president’s priority goals.

Commissioner groups are teams of Commissioners working under a Vice President to align policies and ensure cooperation across related portfolios.

What are the various components of the Commission? What do they do? (Cabinets,
Chefs du Cabinet, DGs and Services, the General Secretariat, etc.)

• Cabinets: Personal teams that advise and support each Commissioner.

• Chef du Cabinet: Head of a Commissioner’s Cabinet; key advisor and gatekeeper.

• DGs (Directorates-General): Departments that develop and implement EU policy (like ministries).

• Services: Provide admin, legal, and technical support across the Commission.

• General Secretariat: Coordinates work across DGs, prepares Commission meetings, ensures communication within the Commission and with other EU institutions.

• (Last two help the commissioner to do their job, there at the pleasure of the commissioner).

How does the Commission adopt legislative proposals? (include its voting methods, Inter-
Service Consultation, the role of desk officers, the role of each level of the
Commission, etc.)

1. Desk officers (in DGs) draft proposals.

2. Inter-Service Consultation checks for consistency across departments.

3. Final draft goes to Commissioners' Cabinets and the General Secretariat.

4. The College of Commissioners adopts proposals by simple majority vote.

5. Proposals can be:

   • Legislative (sent to Council & Parliament),

   • Delegated acts (add detail to laws),

   • Implementing acts (apply laws).

6. Member states can influence or block delegated/implementing acts via comitology.

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What are the competencies of the commission?

Enforces legislation, represents the EU in international trade negotiations.

General Competencies:

• Policy advice

• Administers EU’s programs and budget

• Serves as the EU’s “conciliator and mediator”

• Serves as the “Conscience of the Union”

• Initiates legislation

• Enacts some types of legislation (implementing and delegated legislative acts), member states can veto or change what the commission wants to do.

Special Competencies:

• Judicial: Enforces competition law and handles anti-dumping cases

• Euratom Treaty: Oversees nuclear safety, security, and safeguards

• Fiscal Union: Monitors EU budget rules and economic governance

How does the commission vote?