BIO54 MIDTERM #2: ALL

Pathogens

Pathogens

disease-causing agents found in air and food and on nearly every object or person

Endemic

diseases that are present at expected prevalence rates (ex: common cold in the winter)

Epidemic

when a disease occurs at rates higher than projected, endemic numbers (ex: the flu epidemic worldwide in 1918 that killed 40 million people around the world)

Pandemic

an epidemic that occurs globally

Mysophobia

an obsessive fear of becoming infected with germs

Risk factors you can control: (modifiable)

- too much stress

- poor diet

- low fitness level

- lack of sleep

- misuse or abuse of legal/illegal drugs

- poor personal hygiene

- high risk behavior

Risk factors you typically cannot control: (non-modifiable)

- heredity

- aging

- environmental conditions

- organism virulence and resistance to antibiotics

Inflammatory Response

It is the result of the defense mechanism. A reaction of the body's immune system with the foreign microorganism or subject, producing pain and fever (mild fever is a protective because it kills the disease causing microorganism).

Antigen

any substance capable of triggering an immune response

Antibody

the body's response to an antigen is the formation of antibodies

Humoral Immunity

- the body's major defense against many bacteria and poisonous substances, called toxins.

- performed through the antibodies secreted by blood cells and circulating in the blood and body fluids

Cell-Mediated Immunity

specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes attack and destroy foreign invaders

Autoimmune Disease

- when the immune system misfires, fights against its own proteins and makes antibodies agains them

- antibodies target the body's own tissue and attempt to destroy it

Vaccine

consists of a killed or attenuated version of a disease-causing microorganism or of an antigen that is similar to but less dangerous that the disease antigen

Acquired Immunity

basically a vaccine

Natural Immunity

got the disease itself and then got rid of it without any vaccination

Passive Immunity

From mother to the baby

Types of Bacteria

- three urgent resistant bacterial threats

- staphylococcal infections

- clostridium difficile (C. difficile)

- Streptococcal infections

- meningitis

- pneumonia

- tuberculosis

- tick borne bacterial diseases (Lyme disease)

- escherichia coli (e. coli)

Antibiotics

used to treat bacterial infections

Staphylococcal Infections

occur when the bacteria enter the body through a break in the skin; they can then cause a locked infection.

Clostridium Difficile (C. difficile)

highly resistant bacterial pathogen that causes significant problems

Streptococcal Infections

commonly occur in the throat and can cause strep throat and scarlet fever

Meningitis

inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord

Pneumonia

general term for a wide range of conditions that result in inflammation of the lungs and difficulty breathing

- characterized by chronic cough, chest pains, chills, high fever, fluid accumulation, and eventual respiratory failure

E. Coli

- cause severe illness or death

- get it from eating undercooked ground beef, unpasteurized milk or juice, or sewage contaminated water

Tuberculosis

bacterial disease that is second to only HIV/AIDS as a global infectious agent killer

Viruses

- smallest of the known pathogens

- consist of protein structures containing either RNA or DNA

- cannot reproduce outside living cells

- some have incubation periods that last for years, which delay diagnosis

Types of Viruses

- common cold

- influenza

- infectious mononucleosis

- hepatitis

- mumps

- herpes

- measles, shingles, and rubella

- rabies

Common Cold

- endemic; they are always present

- can "catch" it from the airborne droplets of another's sneeze or from contact

- cannot get it from a chill

- rhinovirus is the main virus to cause it

Influenza

- some 5% to 20% of Americans get the flu each year

- contracting one form of it does not provide resistance to other forms

- those who should be vaccinated include seniors, pregnant women, and people with certain diseases, such as those affecting the heart and lungs

- three major varieties of this virus exist

Hepatitis A (HAV)

contracted through the fecal-oral route, such as ingesting selfish taken from contaminated water (transmitted through food, stays for about a month)

Hepatitis B (HBV)

spread through bodily fluids, unprotected sex, or by contact with the blood of an infected person (stays for your whole life)

- puts the person at risk for chronic liver disease or liver cancer

Hepatitis C (HCV)

spread primarily through blood or bodily fluids of an infected person.

- often manifest itself for many years after exposure, and resistant forms of this strain are emerging

Herpes

infections in the virus stays dormant and is reactivated periodically

- cold sore

- herpes simplex virus

- recurrent viral infection on the face (cold sore) or friction areas during sports Herpes gladiatorum

- in the genitals (very dangerous for the newborn baby)

Herpes Zoster Varicella Virus (HVZV)

- causes chickenpox and shingles

- shingles is a reoccurring zoster virus that is more serious than chickenpox (most sufferers are over the age of 60)

- herpes gladiatorum is prevalent among those who engage in contact sports such as wrestling

Fungi

pathogens that can cause disease in humans (ex: candidiasis, ringworm, and jock itch)

Zika and West Nile Virus (WNV)

diseases spread by the bite of an infected mosquito and infect the nervous system

Routes of Transmission

- vaginal intercourse

- oral- genital contact

- hand- genital contact

- anal intercourse

Chlamydia

- bacterial infection

- no symptoms

- young people aged 15-24 have highest rates of infection

- if left untreated, it can affect: prostate gland and seminal vesicles in men, cervix and Fallopian tubes in women, arthritis-like symptoms, damage to the heart and blood vessels in both men and women

- easily treated with antibiotics

Gonorrhea

- more than 820,000 cases diagnosed each year

- cause by bacterial pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae

- primarily infects the linings of the urethra, genital tract, pharynx, and rectum

- most cases occur in individuals between the ages of 15-24

- treatment with antibiotics is available, if left untreated, it can term-cause sterility

Syphilis

- cause by a bacterial organism

- 83% of cases occur in men who have sex with men (MSM) and partners of MSM

- treatment w antibiotics is available

Herpes

- caused by a virus

- genital herpes is cause by herpes simplex virus (HSV)

- 2 types of HSV (HSV-1, HSV-2)

- there is no cure for it, although some drugs can ease symptoms

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

- numbers infections of the uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries

- results from an untreated STI

- symptoms: abdominal pain, fever, and unusual vaginal discharge

- if left untreated, it increase risk for infertility, chronic pelvic pains, and recurrence upper genital infections

Human Papilloma Virus and Genital Warts

- treatment is available only for the low risk forms of HPV

- most warts can be treated with topical medication of can be frozen with liquid nitrogen and then removed

- large warts may require surgical removal

- currently two HPV vaccines are licensed by the FDA and recommended by the CDC

Candidiasis (Moniliasis)

- yeastlike fungus Candida albicans is a normal inhabitant of the vaginal tract

- if the normal biochemical balance of the vagina is disturbed, these organisms multiply and cause the fungal disease

- symptoms: severe itching and burning and a white vaginal discharge

- antifungal drugs or suppositories cure this

Trichomoniasis

- protozoan

- symptoms in women: foamy, yellowish, unpleasant smelling discharge accompanied by burning sensation, itching, and painful urination

- most men do not have symptoms

- usually spread by sexual contact but can also be spread by toilet seats, wet towels, or other items with discharge on them

Cardiovascular System

network of organs and vessels through which blood flows as it carries oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body

The Heart: A Mighty Machine

- four chambered pump

- contracts 100,000 times a day

- pumps the equivalent of 2,000 gallons of blood throughout the body

- beats about 2.5 billion times in a 70 year lifetime

- blood is collected in its upper chambers, the atria, from the rest of the body

- two lower chambers, the ventricles, pump the blood out again

Atherosclerosis

characterized by deposits of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium, and fibrin in the inner lining of term-13the artery

Hyperlipidemia

an abnormally high blood lipid level

Plaque

buildup of deposits in the arteries

Coronary Heart Disease

damage in the heart's major blood vessels

Myocardial Infarction (MI)/ Heart Attack

the blood supply to the heart is disrupted. Blockage of the coronary arteries

Coronary Thrombosis

this is caused by a blood clot in the coronary artery

Embolus

occurs when the blood clot is dislodged and moves through the circulatory system (free flowing clot)

Collateral Circulation

an alternative or collateral route of blood flow that develops when blockage of the heart is minor

Stoke

blood supply to the brain is interrupted

Thrombus

stationary blood clot

Aneurysm

most well-known and life-threatening of strokes, is a weakened blood vessel that may bulge under pressure and, in severe cases, burst

Hypertension

sustained elevated blood pressure

- for the average person 110/80 is a healthy blood pressure level, though these numbers depend on weight, age, physical condition, etc

- silent killer

Systolic Pressure

pressure applied to the walls of the arteries when the heart contracts, pumping blood to the rest of the body

Diastolic Pressure

pressure applied to the walls of the arteries during the heart's relaxation phase

High Blood Pressure

usually diagnosed when systolic pressure is 140 or above

Arrhythmias

irregularities in heart rhythm

Tachycardia

racing heartbeat in the absence of expertise or anxiety

Bradycardia

abnormally slow heartbeat

Fibrillation

sporadic heartbeat with a quivering pattern

Angina Pectoris

occurs when there is not enough oxygen to supply the heart muscle, resulting in chest pain or pressure

- nitroglycerin: drug used to relax (dilate) the veins

- beta blockers control potential over-activity of the heart muscle

Heart Failure

a damaged or overworked heart muscle is unable to keep blood circulating normally

Congenital Cardiovascular Defect

- present at birth

- may be cause by hereditary factors, by maternal disease such as rubella, maternal drug use, smoking after the first trimester, and folate deficiency during pregnancy

Rheumatic Heart Disease

is due to an untreated streptococcal infection leading to an autoimmune response, where the antibodies attack the heart as well as the bacteria

Techniques for Diagnosing Heart Disease

- Electrocardiogram (ECG)

- Angiography

- Position Emission Tomography (PET)

- Magnetic Resonance Tomography (MRI)

- Ultrafast Computed Tomography (CT)

- Cardiac Calcium Score

Diabetes

high level of glucose - a type of sugar- in the blood

Hyperglycemia

elevated blood glucose level

Insulin

a hormone secreted by the pancreas, stimulates cells to take up glucose from the bloodstream and carry it into the cell where it is used or stored

- without it, cells cannot take up glucose, and blood glucose levels become permanently elevated

Type 1 Diabetes

autoimmune disease in which an individual's immune system attacks and destroys normal insulin-making cells in the pancreas, it is also called insulin-dependent diabetes

- people with this require insulin injections or infusions and must carefully monitor their diet and exercise levels

- elevated glucose levels wreaks havoc with tissues and organs in the body

- damage affects kidneys, nerves in the hands and feet, and has other serious health issues

Type 2 Diabetes

- (non-insulin dependent) the pancreas does not make sufficient insulin, or body cells are resistant to its effects and don't efficiently use the insulin that is available

- 90-95% of all diabetes cases

Gestational Diabetes

state of high blood glucose during pregnancy

Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG)

Diabetes: 126 and above

Pre-Diabetes: 100-125

Normal: 99 and below

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

Diabetes: 200 and above

Pre-Diabetes: 140-199

Normal: 139 and below

Hemoglobin A1C

- gives the average value of a patient's blood glucose over the past 2-3 months, instead of at one moment in time

Diabetes: 6.5 and above

Pre-Diabetes: 5.7-6.4

Normal: 5.7 and below

The CDC approximates how many people have diabetes?

30 million

The form of diabetes in which the immune system destroys insulin-making cells in the pancreas is...

type 1

Which organ secretes insulin?

pancreas

People with type 1 diabetes are dependent upon...

daily insulin injections

For patients with pre-diabetes, what strategies does the diabetes prevention program show is effective in reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes?

Regular physical activity and losing 5 to 7 percent of current body weight

Nerve damage associated with diabetes usually causes numbness in...

the hands and feet (where there are little arteries)

People with uncontrolled diabetes can develop blindness due to...

damage to blood vessels of the eyes

In a state of diabetic ketoacidosis...

an individual can fall into coma and die

Age, ethnicity, genetics, and biological factors are...

non-modifiable risk factors for diabetes

Kara was tested for diabetes. Her fasting plasma glucose test showed a level of 120. This indicated that...

Kara has pre-diabetes

Which of the following occurs as a result of gestational diabetes?

the mother has a reduced risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes after giving birth